Environmental science

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Environmental scienceis aninterdisciplinaryacademic fieldthat integratesphysics,biology,meteorology,mathematicsandgeography(includingecology,chemistry,plant science,zoology,mineralogy,oceanography,limnology,soil science,geologyandphysical geography, andatmospheric science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields ofnatural historyandmedicineduring theEnlightenment.^[1]Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, andinterdisciplinaryapproach to the study ofenvironmental systems.^[2]

Environmental studiesincorporates more of thesocial sciencesfor understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment.Environmental engineeringfocuses on design and technology for improvingenvironmental qualityin every aspect.^{[citation needed]}

Environmental scientists seek to understand the earth's physical, chemical, biological, and geological processes, and to use that knowledge to understand how issues such asalternative energysystems,pollution controland mitigation,natural resource management, and theeffects of global warming and climate changeinfluence and affect the natural systems and processes of earth.Environmental issuesalmost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.

Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for amulti-disciplinaryapproach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantiveenvironmental lawsrequiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this development included the publication ofRachel Carson's landmark environmental bookSilent Spring^[3]along with major environmental issues becoming very public, such as the1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and theCuyahoga Riverof Cleveland, Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study.

In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often used interchangeably, but technically,ecologyrefers only to the study of organisms and their interactions with each other as well as how they interrelate with environment. Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental science, which also could involve purely chemical orpublic healthissues (for example) ecologists would be unlikely to study. In practice, there are considerable similarities between the work of ecologists and other environmental scientists. There is substantial overlap between ecology and environmental science with the disciplines of fisheries, forestry, and wildlife.^{[citation needed]}

Historical concern for environmental issues is well documented in archives around the world.^[4]Ancient civilizations were mainly concerned with what is now known as environmental science insofar as it related to agriculture and natural resources. Scholars believe that early interest in the environment began around 6000 BCE when ancient civilizations in Israel and Jordan collapsed due todeforestation.^[5]As a result, in 2700 BCE the first legislation limiting deforestation was established inMesopotamia.^[5]Two hundred years later, in 2500 BCE, a community residing in theIndus River Valleyobserved the nearby river system in order to improve sanitation.^[5]This involved manipulating the flow of water to account for public health. In the Western Hemisphere, numerous ancient Central American city-states collapsed around 1500 BCE due to soil erosion from intensive agriculture.^[5]Those remaining from these civilizations took greater attention to the impact of farming practices on the sustainability of the land and its stable food production. Furthermore, in 1450 BCE theMinoan civilizationon the Greek island of Crete declined due to deforestation and the resultingenvironmental degradationof natural resources.^[5]Pliny the Eldersomewhat addressed the environmental concerns of ancient civilizations in the textNaturalis Historia, written between 77 and 79 ACE, which provided an overview of many related subsets of the discipline.^[6]

Although warfare and disease were of primary concern in ancient society, environmental issues played a crucial role in the survival and power of different civilizations. As more communities recognized the importance of the natural world to their long-term success, an interest in studying the environment came into existence.^{[citation needed]}

In 1735, the concept ofbinomial nomenclatureis introduced byCarolus Linnaeusas a way to classify all living organisms, influenced by earlier works ofAristotle.^[6]His text,Systema Naturae, represents one of the earliest culminations of knowledge on the subject, providing a means to identify different species based partially on how they interact with their environment.^{[citation needed]}

In the 1820s, scientists were studying the properties of gases, particularly those in the Earth's atmosphere and their interactions with heat from the Sun.^[7]Later that century, studies suggested that the Earth had experienced anIce Ageand that warming of the Earth was partially due to what are now known asgreenhouse gases(GHG).^[7]Thegreenhouse effectwas introduced, although climate science was not yet recognized as an important topic in environmental science due to minimal industrialization and lower rates of greenhouse gas emissions at the time.^{[citation needed]}

In the 1900s, the discipline of environmental science as it is known today began to take shape. The century is marked by significant research, literature, and international cooperation in the field.

In the early 20th century, criticism from dissenters downplayed the effects ofglobal warming.^[7]At this time, few researchers were studying the dangers offossil fuels. After a 1.3 degrees Celsius temperature anomaly was found in the Atlantic Ocean in the 1940s, however, scientists renewed their studies of gaseous heat trapping from the greenhouse effect (although onlycarbon dioxideand water vapor were known to be greenhouse gases then).^[7]Nuclear development following the Second World War allowed environmental scientists to intensively study the effects of carbon and make advancements in the field.^[7]Further knowledge from archaeological evidence brought to light the changes in climate over time, particularlyice core sampling.^[7]

Environmental science was brought to the forefront of society in 1962 whenRachel Carsonpublished an influential piece of environmental literature,Silent Spring.^[8]Carson's writing led the American public to pursue environmental safeguards, such as bans on harmful chemicals like the insecticideDDT.^[8]Another important work,The Tragedy of the Commons, was published byGarrett Hardinin 1968 in response to accelerating natural degradation.^[6]In 1969, environmental science once again became a household term after two striking disasters: Ohio'sCuyahoga Rivercaught fire due to the amount ofpollutionin its waters and aSanta Barbara oil spillendangered thousands of marine animals, both receiving prolific media coverage.^[8]Consequently, the United States passed an abundance of legislation, including theClean Water Actand theGreat Lakes Water Quality Agreement.^[8]The following year, in 1970, the first everEarth Daywas celebrated worldwide and the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency(EPA) was formed, legitimizing the study of environmental science in government policy.^[8]In the next two years, theUnited Nationscreated theUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) in Stockholm, Sweden to address globalenvironmental degradation.^[9]

Much of the interest in environmental science throughout the 1970s and the 1980s was characterized by major disasters and social movements. In 1978, hundreds of people were relocated fromLove Canal, New York aftercarcinogenic pollutantswere found to be buried underground near residential areas.^[8]The next year, in 1979, the nuclear power plant onThree Mile Islandin Pennsylvania suffered a meltdown and raised concerns about the dangers ofradioactive wasteand the safety of nuclear energy.^[8]In response to landfills and toxic waste often disposed of near their homes, the officialEnvironmental Justice Movementwas started by a Black community in North Carolina in 1982.^[8]Two years later, the toxicmethyl isocyanategas was released to the public from a power plant disaster inBhopal, India, harming hundreds of thousands of people living near the disaster site, the effects of which are still felt today.^[8]In a groundbreaking discovery in 1985, a British team of researchers studying Antarctica found evidence of ahole in the ozone layer, inspiring global agreements banning the use ofchlorofluorocarbons(CFCs), which were previously used in nearly all aerosols and refrigerants.^[7]Notably, in 1986, the meltdown at theChernobylnuclear power plant in Ukraine released radioactive waste to the public, leading to international studies on the ramifications of environmental disasters.^[8]Over the next couple of years, theBrundtland Commission(previously known as the World Commission on Environment and Development) published a report titledOur Common Futureand theMontreal Protocolformed theInternational Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) as international communication focused on finding solutions for climate change and degradation.^[9]In the late 1980s, theExxon Valdezcompany was fined for spilling large quantities ofcrude oiloff the coast of Alaska and the resulting cleanup, involving the work of environmental scientists.^[8]After hundreds of oil wells were burned in combat in 1991, warfare between Iraq and Kuwait polluted the surrounding atmosphere just below the air quality thresholdenvironmental scientists believed was life-threatening.^[8]

Many niche disciplines of environmental science have emerged over the years, althoughclimatologyis one of the most known topics. Since the 2000s, environmental scientists have focused on modeling theeffects of climate changeand encouraging global cooperation to minimize potential damages. In 2002, theSociety for the Environmentas well as theInstitute of Air Quality Managementwere founded to share knowledge and develop solutions around the world.^[9]Later, in 2008, the United Kingdom became the first country to pass legislation (theClimate Change Act) that aims to reduce carbon dioxide output to a specified threshold.^[9]In 2016 theKyoto Protocolbecame theParis Agreement, which sets concrete goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and restricts Earth's rise in temperature to a 2 degrees Celsius maximum.^[9]The agreement is one of the most expansive international efforts to limit the effects of global warming to date.

Most environmental disasters in this time period involve crude oil pollution or the effects of rising temperatures. In 2010,BPwas responsible for the largest American oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, known as theDeepwater Horizon spill, which killed a number of the company's workers and released large amounts of crude oil into the water.^[8]Furthermore, throughout this century, much of the world has been ravaged by widespread wildfires andwater scarcity, prompting regulations on the sustainable use of natural resources as determined by environmental scientists.^[8]

The 21st century is marked by significant technological advancements. New technology in environmental science has transformed how researchers gather information about various topics in the field. Research in engines,fuel efficiency, and decreasing emissions from vehicles since the times of theIndustrial Revolutionhas reduced the amount of carbon and other pollutants into the atmosphere.^[10]Furthermore, investment in researching and developingclean energy(i.e. wind, solar, hydroelectric, and geothermal power) has significantly increased in recent years, indicating the beginnings of thedivestment from fossil fuel use.^[10]Geographic information systems(GIS) are used to observe sources of air or water pollution through satellites and digital imagery analysis.^[10]This technology allows for advanced farming techniques likeprecision agricultureas well as monitoring water usage in order to set market prices.^[10]In the field of water quality, developed strains of natural and manmade bacteria contribute tobioremediation, the treatment ofwastewatersfor future use.^[10]This method is more eco-friendly and cheaper than manual cleanup or treatment of wastewaters.^[10]Most notably, the expansion of computer technology has allowed for large data collection, advanced analysis, historical archives, public awareness of environmental issues, and international scientific communication.^[11]The ability to crowdsource on the Internet, for example, represents the process of collectivizing knowledge from researchers around the world to create increased opportunity for scientific progress.^[11]Withcrowdsourcing, data is released to the public for personal analyses which can later be shared as new information is found.^[11]Another technological development,blockchaintechnology, monitors and regulates global fisheries.^[11]By tracking the path of fish through global markets, environmental scientists can observe whether certain species are being overharvested to the point of extinction.^[11]Additionally,remote sensingallows for the detection of features of the environment without physical intervention.^[11]The resulting digital imagery is used to create increasingly accurate models of environmental processes,climate change, and much more. Advancements to remote sensing technology are particularly useful in locating thenonpoint sources of pollutionand analyzingecosystem healththrough image analysis across theelectromagnetic spectrum. Lastly,thermal imagingtechnology is used inwildlife managementto catch and discourage poachers and other illegal wildlife traffickers from killing endangered animals, proving useful for conservation efforts.^[11]Artificial intelligencehas also been used to predict the movement of animal populations and protect the habitats of wildlife.^[11]

Atmospheric sciences focus on the Earth's atmosphere, with an emphasis upon its interrelation to other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies ofmeteorology,greenhouse gasphenomena,atmospheric dispersion modelingof airborne contaminants,^[12][13]sound propagation phenomena related tonoise pollution, and evenlight pollution.

Taking the example of theglobal warmingphenomena, physicists createcomputer modelsof atmospheric circulation andinfraredradiation transmission, chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric chemicals and their reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions tocarbon dioxidefluxes, and specialists such asmeteorologistsandoceanographersadd additional breadth in understanding theatmospheric dynamics^{[citation needed]}.

As defined by the Ecological Society of America, "Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them."^[14]Ecologists might investigate the relationship between a population of organisms and some physical characteristic of their environment, such as concentration of a chemical; or they might investigate the interaction between two populations of different organisms through some symbiotic or competitive relationship. For example, an interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related environmental science fields. In an estuarine setting where a proposed industrial development could impact certain species bywaterandair pollution,biologistswould describe the flora and fauna,chemistswould analyze the transport ofwater pollutantsto the marsh,physicistswould calculateairpollution emissions andgeologistswould assist in understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.^{[citation needed]}

Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the environment. Principal areas of study includesoil contaminationand water pollution. The topics of analysis include chemical degradation in the environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation of asolventcontaining lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and chemical effects uponbiota.^{[citation needed]}

As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has entered the habitat soil of anendangered speciesof amphibian. As a method to resolve or understand the extent ofsoil contaminationand subsurface transport of solvent, acomputer modelwould be implemented. Chemists would then characterize themolecular bondingof the solvent to the specific soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soilarthropods, plants, and ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the endangered amphibian.^{[citation needed]}

Geosciences includeenvironmental geology,environmental soil science,volcanicphenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In some classification systems this can also includehydrology, includingoceanography.^{[citation needed]}

As an example study, of soilserosion, calculations would be made ofsurface runoffby soil scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist in examiningsediment transportin overland flow. Physicists would contribute by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving waters. Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna from increases in water turbidity.^{[citation needed]}

In the United States theNational Environmental Policy Act(NEPA) of 1969 set forth requirements for analysis of federal government actions (such as highway construction projects and land management decisions) in terms of specific environmental criteria.^[15]Numerous state laws have echoed these mandates, applying the principles to local-scale actions. The upshot has been an explosion of documentation and study of environmental consequences before the fact of development actions.^{[citation needed]}

One can examine the specifics of environmental science by reading examples ofEnvironmental Impact Statementsprepared under NEPA such as:Wastewater treatment expansion options discharging into the San Diego/TijuanaEstuary,Expansion of theSan Francisco International Airport,Development of theHouston, Metro Transportation system,Expansion of the metropolitanBostonMBTA transit system, andConstruction ofInterstate 66throughArlington, Virginia.^{[citation needed]}

In England and Wales theEnvironment Agency(EA),^[16]formed in 1996, is a public body for protecting and improving the environment and enforces the regulations listed on the communities and local government site.^[17](formerly the office of the deputy prime minister). The agency was set up under theEnvironment Act 1995as an independent body and works closely with UK Government to enforce the regulations.^{[citation needed]}

• Environmental monitoring
• Environmental planning
• Environmental statistics
• Environmental informatics
• Glossary of environmental science
• List of environmental studies topics

• Glossary of environmental terms– Global Development Research Center