England

England
Flag
Anthem: Predominantly "God Save the King" (National anthem of the United Kingdom)
Location of England (dark green) – inEurope(green & dark grey) – in theUnited Kingdom(green)
Status	Country
Capital and largest city	London 51°30′N0°7′W / 51.500°N 0.117°W /51.500; -0.117
National language	English
Regional languages	Cornish
Ethnic groups ( 2021) [1]	List 81.0%White 9.6%Asian 4.2%Black 3.0%Mixed 2.2%other
Religion (2021) [1]	List 46.3%Christianity 36.7%no religion 6.7%Islam 1.8%Hinduism 0.9%Sikhism 0.5%Judaism 0.5%Buddhism 0.6%other 6.0% not stated
Demonym(s)	English[a]
Sovereign state Legal jurisdiction	United Kingdom England and Wales
Government	Part of aconstitutional monarchy, direct government exercised by theUK Government
• Monarch	Charles III
Parliament of the United Kingdom
•House of Commons	543 MPs(of 650)
Establishment
• Unification of Angles, Saxons and Danes	by 12 July 927
• Union with Scotland	1 May 1707
Area
• Total [c]	132,932 km2(51,325 sq mi)[2]
• Land [b]	130,310 km2(50,310 sq mi)[3]
Population
• 2022 estimate	57,106,398[3]
• 2021 census	56,490,048[1]
• Density	438/km2(1,134.4/sq mi)[3]
GVA	2022 estimate
• Total	£1.940 trillion
• Per capita	£33,976[4]
GDP(nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	£2.162 trillion
• Per capita	£37,852[5]
Currency	Pound sterling(GBP;£)
Time zone	UTC+0(GMT)
• Summer ( DST)	UTC+1(BST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
Drives on	left
Calling code	+44
ISO 3166 code	GB-ENG

Englandis acountrythat is part of theUnited Kingdom.^[6]It is located on the island ofGreat Britain, of which it covers approximately 62%, andover 100 smaller adjacent islands. It has land borders withScotlandto the north andWalesto the west, and is otherwise surrounded by theNorth Seato the east, theEnglish Channelto the south, theCeltic Seato the south-west, and theIrish Seato the west.Continental Europelies to the south-east, andIrelandto the west. At the2021 census, the population was 56,490,048.^[1]Londonis boththe largest cityand thecapital.

The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during theUpper Paleolithic. It takes its name from theAngles, aGermanictribe who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world since theAge of Discovery, which began during the 15th century.^[7]TheKingdom of England, which included Wales after 1535, ceased to be a separatesovereign stateon 1 May 1707, when theActs of Unionbrought into effect a political union with theKingdom of Scotlandthat created theKingdom of Great Britain.^[8]

England is the origin of theEnglish language, theEnglish legal system(which served as the basis for thecommon lawsystems of many other countries),association football, and theAnglicanbranch of Christianity; itsparliamentary system of governmenthas been widely adopted by other nations.^[9]TheIndustrial Revolutionbegan in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.^[10]England is home tothe two oldest universitiesin the English-speaking world: theUniversity of Oxford, founded in 1096, and theUniversity of Cambridge, founded in 1209. Both universities are ranked among the most prestigious in the world.^[11][12]

England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills andplains, especially in thecentreandsouth. Upland and mountainous terrain is mostly found in thenorthand west, includingDartmoor, theLake District, thePennines, and theShropshire Hills. The country's capital isLondon, themetropolitan areaof which has a population of 14.2 million as of 2021, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom,^[13]largely concentrated around London, theSouth East, and conurbations in theMidlands, theNorth West, theNorth East, andYorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.^[14]

The name "England" is derived from theOld EnglishnameEnglaland, which means "land of theAngles".^[15]The Angles were one of theGermanic tribesthat settled in Great Britain during theEarly Middle Ages. They came from theAngelnregion of what is now the German state ofSchleswig-Holstein.^[16]The earliest recorded use of the term, as "Engla londe", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English ofBede'sEcclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used to mean "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom ofNorthumbria. TheAnglo-Saxon Chroniclerecorded that theDomesday Bookof 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later theChroniclestated that KingMalcolm IIIwent "out of Scotlande intoLothianin Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense.^[17]

The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work byTacitus,Germania, in which theLatinwordAngliiis used.^[18]The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, anangularshape.^[19]How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as theSaxons, came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in BritainAngli Saxonesor English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany.^[20]InScottish Gaelic, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn);^[21]similarly, theWelshname for the English language is "Saesneg". A romantic name for England isLoegria, related to the Welsh word for England,Lloegr, and made popular by its use inArthurian legend.Albionis also applied to England in a more poetic capacity,^[22]though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole.

The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that ofHomo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago.^[23]Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during theUpper Paleolithicperiod, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years.^[24]After thelast ice ageonly large mammals such asmammoths,bisonandwoolly rhinocerosremained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when theice sheetsbegan to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of theIberian Peninsula.^[25]The sea level was lower than the present day and Britain was connected byland bridgeto Ireland andEurasia.^[26]As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.

TheBeaker culturearrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.^[27]It was during this time that majorNeolithicmonuments such asStonehenge(phase III) andAveburywere constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people madebronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of ironsmeltingallowed the construction of betterploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, withCeltic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.^[28]

During theIron Age,Celtic culture, deriving from theHallstattandLa Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe.Brythonicwas the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according toPtolemy'sGeographiathere were around 20 tribes in the area. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of theRoman Republicattempted toinvade twicein 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up aclient kingfrom theTrinovantes.

The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of EmperorClaudius, subsequentlyconquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire asBritannia province.^[29]The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were theCatuvellauniled byCaratacus. Later, an uprising led byBoudica, Queen of theIceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at theBattle of Watling Street.^[30]The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000.^[31]This era saw aGreco-Romanculture prevail with the introduction ofRoman law,Roman architecture,aqueducts,sewers, many agricultural items and silk.^[32]In the 3rd century, EmperorSeptimius Severusdied atEboracum(nowYork), whereConstantinewas subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later.^[33]

There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According toBede, missionaries were sent from Rome byEleutheriusat the request of the chieftainLucius of Britainin 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction throughJoseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.^[34]By 410, during thedecline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by theend of Roman rule in Britainand the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.^[35]Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished. This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church.^[36]

Roman militarywithdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons,Angles,Jutesand Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province. These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over the course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country.^[35]Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at theBattle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area underBrittoniccontrol to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as aDark Age. Details of theAnglo-Saxon settlement of Britainare consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control.^[37][38]Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in the conquered territories byAnglo-Saxon paganism, but wasreintroduced by missionariesfrom Rome led byAugustinefrom 597.^[39]Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at theCouncil of Whitby(664), which was ostensibly abouttonsures(clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice.^[36]

During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms includingNorthumbria,Mercia,Wessex,East Anglia,Essex,KentandSussex. Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued.^[40]The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.^[41]In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by theDanesculminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex underAlfred the Greatwas left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of theDanelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished underÆthelstanin 927 and definitively established after further conflicts byEadredin 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom bySweyn Forkbeardin 1013 and again by his sonCnutin 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-livedNorth Sea Empirethat also includedDenmarkandNorway. However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession ofEdward the Confessorin 1042.

A dispute over the succession to Edward led to an unsuccessful Norwegian Invasion in September 1066 close to York in the North, and the successfulNorman Conquestin October 1066, accomplished by an army led byDuke William of Normandyinvading at Hastings late September 1066.^[42]TheNormansthemselves originated fromScandinaviaand had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.^[43]This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.^[44]

Subsequently, theHouse of PlantagenetfromAnjouinherited the English throne underHenry II, adding England to the buddingAngevin Empireof fiefs the family had inherited in France includingAquitaine.^[45]They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs beingRichard I,Edward I,Edward IIIandHenry V.^[45]The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing ofMagna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholicmonasticismflourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. ThePrincipality of Walesbecame a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century^[46]and theLordship of Irelandwas given to the English monarchy by the Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and theHouse of Valoisclaimed to be legitimate claimants to theHouse of Capetand of France; the two powers clashed in theHundred Years' War.^[47]TheBlack Deathepidemichit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England'sinhabitants.^[48]

Between 1453 and 1487, a civil war known as theWar of the Roseswaged between the two branches of the royal family, theYorkistsandLancastrians.^[49]Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family theTudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed byHenry Tudorwho invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at theBattle of Bosworth Fieldwhere the Yorkist kingRichard IIIwas killed.^[50]

During theTudor period, England began to developnaval skills, and exploration intensified in theAge of Discovery.^[51]Henry VIIIbroke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under theActs of Supremacyin 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of theChurch of England. In contrast with much of EuropeanProtestantism, theroots of the splitwere more political than theological.^[d]He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters,Mary IandElizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy ofAnglicanism. TheElizabethan erais the epoch in the Tudor age of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ("the Virgin Queen"). Historians often depict it as thegolden agein English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, drama, poetry, music and literature.^[53]England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government.^[54]

Competing withSpain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorerWalter RaleighinVirginiaand namedRoanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship.^[55]With theEast India Company, England also competed with theDutchandFrenchin the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. Anarmadasailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet underLord Howard of Effingham. This failure did not end the threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in1596and1597, but both were driven back by storms.

The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when theKing of Scots,James VI, a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating apersonal union.^[56]He styled himselfKing of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law.^[57]Under the auspices of James VI and I the AuthorisedKing James Versionof the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.

Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, theEnglish Civil Warwas fought between the supporters ofParliamentand those of KingCharles I, known colloquially asRoundheadsandCavaliersrespectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifacetedWars of the Three Kingdoms, involvingScotlandandIreland. The Parliamentarians were victorious,Charles I was executedand the kingdom replaced by theCommonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces,Oliver Cromwelldeclared himselfLord Protectorin 1653; a period ofpersonal rulefollowed.^[58]After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his sonRichardas Lord Protector,Charles IIwas invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called theRestoration. With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of the "Merry Monarch" Charles II.^[59]After theGlorious Revolutionof 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with theBill of Rightsin 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament.^[60]Also since that time, no British monarch has entered theHouse of Commonswhen it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at theState Opening of Parliamentby the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.^[61]With the founding of theRoyal Societyin 1660, science was greatly encouraged.

In 1666 theGreat Fire of Londongutted the city of London, but it was rebuilt shortly afterward with many significant buildings designed by SirChristopher Wren.^[62]By the mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – theToriesandWhigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic kingJames II, some of them, along with the Whigs, during theRevolution of 1688invited the DutchPrince William of Orangeto defeat James and become the king. Some English people, especially in the north, wereJacobitesand continued to support James and his sons. Under theStuart dynastyEngland expanded in trade, finance and prosperity. The Royal Navy developed Europe's largest merchant fleet.^[63]After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed,^[64]the two countries joined inpolitical union, to create theKingdom of Great Britainin 1707.^[56]To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.^[65]

Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and otherEnglish initiativescombined with theScottish Enlightenmentto create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth inBritish overseas tradeprotected by theRoyal Navypaved the way for the establishment of theBritish Empire. Domestically it drove theIndustrial Revolution, a period of profound change in thesocioeconomicand cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.^[66]The opening of Northwest England'sBridgewater Canalin 1761 ushered in thecanal age in Britain.^[67]In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – theStockton and Darlington Railway– opened to the public.^[67]

During theIndustrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance atBirminghamandManchester,^[69]with the latter the world's first industrial city.^[70]England maintained relative stability throughout theFrench Revolution, underGeorge IIIandWilliam Pitt the Younger. Theregency of George IVis noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture.^[71]During theNapoleonic Wars,Napoleonplanned toinvade from the south-east; however, this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British: at sea byHoratio Nelson, and on land byArthur Wellesley. The major victory at theBattle of Trafalgarconfirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century.^[72]The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept ofBritishnessand a united nationalBritish people, shared with the English, Scots and Welsh.^[73]

London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during theVictorian era, and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious.^[74]Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity.^[75]Political agitation at home from radicals such as theChartistsand thesuffragettesenabled legislative reform anduniversal suffrage.^[76]

Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of theAllies.^[e]Two decades later, inWorld War II, the United Kingdom was again one of theAllies. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids duringthe Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapiddecolonisation, and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport andFrank Whittle's development of thejet engineled to widerair travel.^[78]Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of theNational Health Servicein 1948, providingpublicly funded health careto all permanent residents free at the point of need. Combined, these prompted the reform oflocal government in Englandin the mid-20th century.^[79]

Since the 20th century, there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of theBritish Isles, but also from theCommonwealth, particularly theIndian subcontinent.^[80]Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on theservice industry.^[81]As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined acommon marketinitiative called theEuropean Economic Communitywhich became theEuropean Union. Since the late 20th century theadministration of the United Kingdomhas moved towardsdevolved governancein Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.^[82]England and Walescontinues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom.^[83]Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.^[84]There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected byreferendum.^[85]

England is part of the United Kingdom, aconstitutional monarchywith aparliamentary system.^[86]There has not been agovernment of Englandsince 1707, when theActs of Union 1707,^[87]putting into effect the terms of theTreaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form theKingdom of Great Britain.^[64]Before the union England was ruled byits monarchand theParliament of England. Today England is governed directly by theParliament of the United Kingdom, although othercountries of the United Kingdomhavedevolvedgovernments.^[88]There has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that variousregions of Englandwould be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by theNorth Eastin a2004 referendum, this has not been carried out.^[85]

In theHouse of Commonswhich is thelower houseof the British Parliament based at thePalace of Westminster, there are 543 members of parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.^[89]England is represented by 347 MPs from theLabour Party, 116 from theConservative Party, 65 from theLiberal Democrats, five forReform UKand four for theGreen Party of England and Wales.

TheEnglish lawlegal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis ofcommon law^[90]legal systems used in mostCommonwealthcountries^[91]and the United States (exceptLouisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of theCourts of England and Walescontinued, under theTreaty of Union, as a separate legal system fromthe one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge oflegal precedent–stare decisis– to the facts before them.^[92]

The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of theCourt of Appeal, theHigh Court of Justicefor civil cases, and theCrown Courtfor criminal cases.^[93]TheSupreme Court of the United Kingdomis the highest court for criminal and civil cases inEngland and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over thejudicial functions of the House of Lords.^[94]A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.^[95]

TheSecretary of State for Justiceis the minister responsible to Parliament for thejudiciary, the court system and prisons and probation in England.^[96]Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006.^[97]The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it one of thehighest incarceration ratesin Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.^[98]His Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to theMinistry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing 81,309 prisoners in England and Wales as of September 2022^[update].^[99]

Thesubdivisions of Englandconsist of up to four levels ofsubnational division, controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes oflocal government.

Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48ceremonial counties.^[100]These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference. Of these, 38 developed gradually since theMiddle Ages; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996.^[101]Each has aLord LieutenantandHigh Sheriff; these posts are used to represent theBritish monarchlocally.^[100]Some counties, such asHerefordshire, are only divided further into civil parishes. The royal county of Berkshire and the metropolitan counties have different types of status to other ceremonial counties.^[102]

The second tier is made up ofcombined authoritiesand the 27county-tiershire counties. In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier.

England is also divided into local government districts.^[103]The district can align to a ceremonial county, or be a district tier within ashire county, be aroyalormetropolitan borough, haveboroughorcity status, or be aunitary authority.

At the community level, much of England is divided intocivil parisheswith their owncouncils; in Greater London only one such parish,Queen's Park, exists as of 2014^[update]after they wereabolished in 1965until legislationallowed their recreationin 2007.

From 1994 until the early 2010s England was divided for a few purposes into regions; a1998 referendumfor the London Region created theLondon Assemblytwo years later.^[104]A failed2004 North East England devolution referendumcancelled furtherregional assemblydevolution^[85]with the regional structure outside London abolished.

Ceremonially and administratively, the region is divided between theCity of LondonandGreater London; these are further divided into the 32London Boroughsand the 25Wards of the City of London.^[105]

Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as theIsle of Wightand theIsles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom:to the northby Scotland andto the westby Wales.

England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to the European continent. It is separated fromFrance(Hauts-de-France) by a 21-mile (34 km)^[106]sea gap, though the two countries are connected by theChannel TunnelnearFolkestone.^[107]England also has shores on theIrish Sea,North Seaand Atlantic Ocean.

The ports of London,Liverpool, andNewcastlelie on the tidal riversThames,MerseyandTynerespectively. At 220 miles (350 km), theSevernis the longest river flowing through England.^[108]It empties into theBristol Channeland is notable for itsSevern Bore(atidal bore), which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height.^[109]However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 miles (346 km) in length.^[110]There are manylakes in England; the largest isWindermere, within the aptly namedLake District.^[111]

Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country. The northern uplands include thePennines, a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and theCheviot Hills, straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), isScafell Pikein the Lake District.^[111]TheShropshire Hillsare near Wales whileDartmoorandExmoorare two upland areas in the south-west of the country. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by theTees–Exe line.^[112]

The Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of thePaleozoic Eraaround 300 million years ago.^[113]Their geological composition includes, among others,sandstoneandlimestone, and also coal. There arekarstlandscapes in calcite areas such as parts ofYorkshireandDerbyshire. The Pennine landscape is highmoorlandin upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain twonational parks, theYorkshire Dalesand thePeak District. In theWest Country, Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite.^[114]

TheEnglish Lowlandsare in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including theCotswold Hills,Chiltern Hills,NorthandSouth Downs; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as thecliffs of Dover. This also includes relatively flat plains such as theSalisbury Plain,Somerset Levels,South Coast PlainandThe Fens.

England has atemperatemaritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer.^[115]The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on theEnglish coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October.^[115]Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.

Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to theAtlantic Ocean, its northernlatitudeand the warming of the sea by theGulf Stream.^[115]Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of theLake Districtreceive more rain than anywhere else in the country.^[115]Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 40.3 °C (104.5 °F) on 19 July 2022 atConingsby,Lincolnshire,^[116]while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 inEdgmond, Shropshire.^[117]

The fauna of England is similar to that of other areas in theBritish Isleswith a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats.^[119]National nature reserves in Englandare designated byNatural Englandas key places forwildlifeand natural features in England. They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations. NNRs are managed on behalf of the nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members ofThe Wildlife Trustspartnership, theNational Trust, and theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birds. There are 221 NNRs in England covering 110,000 hectares (1,100 square kilometres). Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals.^[120].

TheEnvironment Agencyis a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by theDepartment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairswith responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England.^[121]TheSecretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairsis the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.^[122]

England has atemperate oceanic climatein most areas, lacking extremes of cold or heat, but does have a few small areas ofsubarcticand warmer areas inthe South West. Towards theNorth of Englandthe climate becomes colder and most of England's mountains and high hills are located here and have a major impact on the climate and thus the local fauna of the areas.Deciduouswoodlands are common across all of England and provide a great habitat for much of England's wildlife, but these give way in northern and upland areas of England toconiferousforests (mainly plantations) which also benefit certain forms of wildlife. Some species have adapted to the expanded urban environment, particularly thered fox, which is the most successfulurban mammalafter thebrown rat, and other animals such ascommon wood pigeon, both of which thrive in urban and suburban areas.^[124]

TheGreater London Built-up Areais by far the largest urban area in England^[125]and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered aglobal cityand has a population larger than any other country in the United Kingdom besides England itself.^[125]Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be innorthern Englandor theEnglish Midlands.^[125]There are50 settlementswhich have designatedcity status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has 66.

While many cities in England are quite large, such asBirmingham,Sheffield,Manchester,Liverpool,Leeds,Newcastle,Bradford,Nottingham, population size is not a prerequisite for city status.^[126]Traditionally the status was given to towns withdiocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities likeWells,Ely,Ripon,TruroandChichester.

England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an averageGDP per capitaof £37,852 in 2022.^[5]HM Treasury, led by theChancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government'spublic financepolicy andeconomic policy.^[127]Usually regarded as amixed market economy, it has adopted manyfree marketprinciples, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.^[128]

The economy of England is the largest part of theUK's economy.^[129]England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularlyaerospace, thearms industry, and thesoftware industry. London, home to theLondon Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's mainstock exchangeand the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.^[130]London is the largest financial centre in Europe and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.^[131]

London has also been named as the fastest growing technology hub in Europe, with England having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of $1 billion or more.^[132][133]TheBank of England, founded in 1694 as private banker to the government of England and astate-owned institutionsince 1946, is the United Kingdom'scentral bank.^[134]The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes inEngland and Wales, although not in other parts of the UK. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank'sMonetary Policy Committeefor managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.^[135]

England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a moreservice industryoriented economy.^[81]Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated bypharmaceuticals, automotives,crude oiland petroleum from the English parts ofNorth Sea oilalong withWytch Farm,aircraft enginesand alcoholic beverages.^[136]Thecreative industriesaccounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.^[137]

Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.^[138]Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the remainder to arable crops.^[139]The main crops that are grown arewheat,barley,oats,potatoes, andsugar beets. England retains a significant fishing industry. Its fleets bring home a variety of fish, ranging fromsoletoherring. England is also rich in natural resources includingcoal,petroleum,natural gas,tin,limestone,iron ore,salt,clay,chalk,gypsum,lead, and silica.^[140]

Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include SirIsaac Newton,Charles Darwin,Robert Hooke,Alan Turing,Stephen Hawking,Edward Jenner,Francis Crick,Joseph Lister,Joseph Priestley,Thomas Young,Christopher WrenandRichard Dawkins.

England was a leading centre of theScientific Revolutionfrom the 17th century.^[141]As the birthplace of theIndustrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers includeIsambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of theGreat Western Railway, a series of famoussteamships, and numerous important bridges, revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.^[142]Thomas Newcomen'ssteam enginehelped spawn the Industrial Revolution.^[143]

The Father of Railways,George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, theLiverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage,Matthew Boulton(business partner ofJames Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.^[144]The physicianEdward Jenner'ssmallpox vaccineis said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."^[145]

Inventions and discoveries of the English include thejet engine; the first industrialspinning machine;the first computerand the firstmodern computer; theWorld Wide Webalong withHTML; the first successful humanblood transfusion; the motorisedvacuum cleaner;^[146]thelawn mower; theseat belt; thehovercraft; theelectric motor;steam engines; and theories such as the Darwinian theory ofevolutionandatomic theory. Newton developed the ideas ofuniversal gravitation,Newtonian mechanics, andcalculus, andRobert Hookehis eponymously namedlaw of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, thethermosiphon,tarmac, therubber band, themousetrap,"cat's eye"road marker, joint development of thelight bulb, steamlocomotives, the modernseed drilland many modern techniques and technologies used inprecision engineering.^[147]

TheRoyal Society, formallyThe Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge,^[148]is alearned societyand theUnited Kingdom's nationalacademy of sciences. Founded on 28 November 1660,^[148]It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.^[149]TheRoyal Institution of Great Britainwas founded in 1799 by leading English scientists, includingHenry Cavendish.^[150]Some experts claim that the earliest concept of ametric systemwas invented byJohn Wilkinsin 1668.^[151]

Scientific research and development remains important in theuniversities of England, with many establishingscience parksto facilitate production and co-operation with industry.^[152]Cambridgeis the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.^[153]In 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (after the United States and China).^[154]Scientific journals produced in England includeNature, theBritish Medical JournalandThe Lancet. TheDepartment for Science, Innovation and Technology,Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology, andMinister of State for Science, Research and Innovationhas responsibility for science in England.^[155]

TheDepartment for Transportis the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. The department is run by theSecretary of State for Transport.

England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure. There are manymotorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as theA1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle^[156](much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is theM6, fromRugbythrough theNorth Westup to theAnglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km).^[156]Other major routes include: theM1from London to Leeds, theM25which encircles London, theM60which encircles Manchester, theM4from London to South Wales, theM62from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and theM5from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.^[156]

Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies includeArriva,FirstGroup,Go-Ahead Group,Mobico Group,RotalaandStagecoach Group.Bus rapid transitoriginated in England with theRuncornBusway opening in 1971.^[157][158]The reddouble-decker busesin London have become a symbol of England.National Cycle Routeoffers cycling routes nationally.

Rail transport in Englandis the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.^[159]Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, theChannel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.

Great British Railwaysis a planned state-owned public body that will overseerail transport in Great Britainfrom 2024. TheOffice of Rail and Roadis responsible for the economic and safety regulation of England's railways.^[160]Crossrailwas Europe's largest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost, opened in 2022.^[161]High Speed 2, a new high-speed north–south railway line, is under construction.^[162]

There is arapid transitnetwork in two English cities: theLondon Underground, and theTyne and Wear MetroinNewcastle upon Tyne,GatesheadandSunderland.^[163]There are several extensive tram networks, such as theManchester Metrolink,Sheffield Supertram,West Midlands Metro,Nottingham Express Transit, andTramlinkin South London.^[163]England also has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport isHeathrow, which is theworld's second busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.^[164]

By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including from Liverpool to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and Hull to the Netherlands and Belgium.^[165]There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by theCanal & River Trust,^[165]however, water transport is very limited. TheRiver Thamesis the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at thePort of Tilburyin theThames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.^[165]

Successive governments have outlined numerous commitments to reducecarbon dioxideemissions. Notably, the UK isone of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.^[167]Wind power contributed 26.8% of UK electricity generation in 2022.^[168]England is home toHornsea 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world, situated in waters roughly 89 kilometres off the coast of Yorkshire.^[169]

TheClimate Change Act 2008was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties. It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally. It represents the first global legally bindingclimate change mitigationtarget set by a country.^[170]UK government energy policyaims to play a key role in limitinggreenhouse gas emissions, while meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country'senergy mixthrough changes in costs.^[171]

The current energy policy is the responsibility of theDepartment for Energy Security and Net ZeroandSecretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero.^[172]TheMinister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growthis responsible for green finance, climate science and innovation, and low carbon generation.^[173]In 2022, the United Kingdom was ranked 2 out of 180 countries in theEnvironmental Performance Index.^[174]A law has been passed thatUK greenhouse gas emissionswill benet zeroby 2050.^[175]

TheNational Health Service(NHS), is the publicly fundedhealthcare systemresponsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of theNational Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of theBeveridge Report, prepared by the economist and social reformer,William Beveridge.^[176]The NHS is largely funded by general taxation andNational Insurancepayments;^[177]it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.^[178]

The government department responsible for the NHS is theDepartment of Health, under theSecretary of State for Health. Most of the department's expenses are on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.^[179]Regulatory bodies such as theGeneral Medical Counciland theNursing and Midwifery Councilare organised on a UK-wide basis, as are non-governmental bodies such as theRoyal Colleges.

The averagelife expectancyis 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the fourcountries of the United Kingdom.^[180]The south of England has a higher life expectancy than the north, but regional differences seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years.^[180]

With over 56 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.^[3]England taken as a unit and measured against international states would be the 26th largestcountry by populationin the world.^[181]

TheEnglish peopleareBritish people.^[182]There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially theUnited States,Canada,Australia,South AfricaandNew Zealand.^[f]Since the late 1990s, many English peoplehave migratedto Spain.^[187]Due in particular to the economic prosperity ofSouth East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.^[182]There has beensignificant Irish migration.^[188]The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 81.7%,^[189]includingWhite British,Germans^[190]andPoles,^[182]down from 94.1% in 1991.^[182]Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, about 7% of people living in England have familyorigins in the Indian subcontinent, mostlyIndia,PakistanandBangladesh.^[189][190]About 0.7% areChinese,^[189][190]0.6% areArabs.^[189]4.0% of the population areblack, from Africa and theCaribbean, especially former British colonies,^[189][190]and 2.9% identified as multiracial ormixed.^[189]

In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were fromethnic minorityfamilies,^[191]and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.^[192]About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.^[193]

England contains one indigenous national minority, theCornish people, recognised by the UK government under theFramework Convention for the Protection of National Minoritiesin 2014.^[194]

Language	Native speakers (thousands)[195]
English	46,937
Polish	529
Punjabi	272
Urdu	266
Bengali	216
Gujarati	212
Arabic	152
French	145
Portuguese	131
Welsh	8
Cornish	0.6
Other	2,267
Population	51,006

English, today widely spoken around the world,^[196]originated in what is now England, where it remains the principal tongue. According to a 2011 census, it is spoken well or very well by 98% of the population^[197]

English language learning and teachingis an importanteconomic activity. There is nolegislationmandating anofficial languagefor England,^[198]but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinctregional accents.

Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived,^[199]and is now protected under theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.^[200]It is spoken by 0.1% of people inCornwall,^[201]and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.^[202]

State schoolsteach students asecond languageorthird languagefrom the ages of seven, most commonly French, Spanish or German.^[203]It was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke aforeign languageat home,^[191]the most common beingPunjabiandUrdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by theOffice for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.^[204]In 2022,British Sign Languagebecame an official language of England when theBritish Sign Language Act 2022came into effect.^[205]

In the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7% answered that they had no religion, 5% specified that they wereMuslim, while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2% did not give an answer.^[206]Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England. Theestablished churchof England is theChurch of England,^[207]which left communion withRomein the 1530s whenHenry VIIIwas unable to annul his marriage toCatherine of Aragon. The church regards itself as both Catholic andProtestant.^[208]

There areHigh ChurchandLow Churchtraditions and some Anglicans regard themselves asAnglo-Catholics, following theTractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is thesupreme governor of the Church of England, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of theAnglican Communionwith theArchbishop of Canterburyacting as its symbolic worldwide head.^[209]Manycathedralsand parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such asWestminster Abbey,York Minster,Durham Cathedral, andSalisbury Cathedral.

The second-largest Christian denomination is theCatholic Church. Since its reintroduction after theCatholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on anEngland and Walesbasis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).^[210]There has been one Pope from England to date,Adrian IV, while saintsBedeandAnselmare regarded asDoctors of the Church.

A form ofProtestantismknown asMethodismis the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism throughJohn Wesley.^[211]It gained popularity in themill townsofLancashireandYorkshire, and among tin miners inCornwall.^[212]There are othernon-conformistminorities, such asBaptists,Quakers,Congregationalists,UnitariansandThe Salvation Army.^[213]

The patron saint of England isSaint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England.^[214]There are many other English and associated saints, includingCuthbert,Edmund,Alban,Wilfrid,Aidan,Edward the Confessor,John Fisher,Thomas More,Petroc,Piran,Margaret ClitherowandThomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised.Jewshave a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.^[215]They were expelled from England in 1290 following theEdict of Expulsion, and were allowed back in 1656.^[215]

Especially since the 1950s, religions from theformer British colonieshave grown in numbers, due to immigration.Islamis the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.^[216]Hinduism,SikhismandBuddhismare next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,^[216]introduced from India andSoutheast Asia.^[216]

A small minority of the population practise ancientPagan religions.Neopaganism in the United Kingdomis primarily represented byWiccaandNeopagan witchcraft,Druidry, andHeathenry. According to the2011 census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England,^[g]including 11,026Wiccans.^[h]24.7% of people in England declaredno religion, compared with 14.6% in 2001.^[217]Norwichhad the highest such proportion at 42.5%, followed byBrighton and Hoveat 42.4%.

TheDepartment for Educationis the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.^[218]State-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.^[219]Education is the responsibility of theSecretary of State for Education.^[220]

Children between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or anEarly Years Foundation Stagereception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach theNational Curriculum; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.^[221]

TheProgramme for International Student Assessmentcoordinated by theOECDcurrently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.^[222]

Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intakegrammar schoolsto which entrance is subject to passing theeleven-plusexam. Around 7.2 per cent of English schoolchildren attendprivate schools, which are funded by private sources.^[223]Standards in state schools are monitored by theOffice for Standards in Education, and in private schools by theIndependent Schools Inspectorate.^[224]

After finishing compulsory education, students takeGCSEexaminations. Students may then opt to continue intofurther educationfor two years.Further education colleges(particularlysixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site.A-levelexaminations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Further education covers a wide curriculum of study andapprenticeships, includingT-levels,BTEC,NVQand others.Tertiary collegesprovide both academic and vocational courses.^[225]

Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for anacademic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which arepublic institutions. TheDepartment for Business, Innovation and Skillsis the government department responsible for higher education in England.^[226]Students are generally entitled tostudent loansto covertuition feesand living costs.^[i]The first degree offered to undergraduates is thebachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or a doctorate, which takes three or more years.^[228]

England's universitiesinclude some of the highest-ranked universities in the world. As of 2024, four England-based universities, theUniversity of Cambridge,University of Oxford,Imperial College London, andUniversity College London, are ranked among the top ten in the 2024QS World University Rankings. The University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, and the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, are the twooldest universities in the English-speaking world.^[229]

TheLondon School of Economicshas been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.^[230]TheLondon Business Schoolis considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by theFinancial Times.^[231]Academic degreesin England are usually split into classes: first class, upper second class, lower second class, third, and unclassified.^[228]The King's School, CanterburyandKing's School, Rochesterare the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.^[232]Many of England's most well-known schools, such asWinchester College,Eton,St Paul's School,Harrow SchoolandRugby Schoolare fee-paying institutions.^[233]

Many ancientstanding stonemonuments were erected during the prehistoric period; among the best known areStonehenge,Devil's Arrows,Rudston MonolithandCastlerigg.^[234]With the introduction ofAncient Roman architecturethere was a development ofbasilicas,baths,amphitheaters,triumphal arches,villas,Roman temples,Roman roads,Roman forts,stockadesandaqueducts.^[235]It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example isHadrian's Wallstretching right across northern England.^[235]Another well-preserved example is theRoman BathsatBath, Somerset.^[235]

Early medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber withthatchfor roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis ofHiberno–Saxonmonasticism,^[236][237]toEarly Christianbasilicaand architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 variouscastleswere created; the best known include theTower of London,Warwick Castle,Durham CastleandWindsor Castle.^[238]

Throughout the Plantagenet era, anEnglish Gothic architectureflourished, with prime examples including themedieval cathedralssuch asCanterbury Cathedral,Westminster AbbeyandYork Minster.^[238]Expanding on theNorman basethere was alsocastles,palaces,great houses, universities andparish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-centuryTudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as theTudor arch, was a defining feature as werewattle and daubhouses domestically. In the aftermath of theRenaissancea form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, theEnglish Baroquestyle of architectChristopher Wrenbeing particularly championed.^[239]

Georgian architecturefollowed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; theRoyal Crescentat Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence ofromanticismduring Victorian period, aGothic Revivalwas launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such asThe Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s variousmodernistforms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.^[j]

Landscape gardening, as developed byCapability Brown, set an international trend for theEnglish landscape garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples,Gothicruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.^[242]

By the end of the 18th century, the English garden was being imitated by theFrench landscape garden, and as far away asPavlovsk, Saint Petersburg, the gardens of the futureEmperor Paul. It also had a major influence on thepublic parksand gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.^[243]The English landscape garden was centred on theEnglish country houseand manor houses.^[242]

English Heritageand theNational Trustpreserve great gardens and landscape parks throughout the country.^[244]TheRHS Chelsea Flower Showis held every year by theRoyal Horticultural Societyand is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.^[245]

English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings includepixies,giants,elves,bogeymen,trolls,goblinsanddwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuringOffa of AngelandWayland the Smith,^[246]others date from after the Norman invasion. The legends featuringRobin Hoodand hisMerry MenofSherwood, and their battles with theSheriff of Nottingham, are among the best-known of these.^[247]

During theHigh Middle Agestales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into theArthurian myth.^{[248][249][250]}These were derived fromAnglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources,^[249]featuringKing Arthur,Camelot,Excalibur,Merlinand theKnights of the Round Tablesuch asLancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together withinGeoffrey of Monmouth'sHistoria Regum Britanniae(History of the Kings of Britain).^[k]

Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries.^[252]On 5 November people celebrateBonfire Nightto commemorate the foiling of theGunpowder Plotcentred onGuy Fawkes. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such asMorris dancing,Maypole dancing,Rapper swordin the North East,Long Sword dancein Yorkshire,Mummers Plays,bottle-kickingin Leicestershire, andcheese-rollingatCooper's Hill.^[253]There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as thePearly Kings and Queensassociated with cockneys, theRoyal Guard, theMorris costumeandBeefeaters.^[254]

Since theearly modern periodthe food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.^[255]During theMiddle Agesand the Renaissance, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during theIndustrial Revolutionwith increasing urbanisation. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings inRestaurant'sbest restaurant in the worldcharts.^[256]

Traditional examples of English food include theSunday roast, featuring aroasted joint(usually beef,lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables,Yorkshire puddingandgravy.^[257]Other prominent meals includefish and chipsand thefull English breakfast(generally consisting ofbacon,sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread,black pudding,baked beans,mushroomsand eggs).^[258]Variousmeat piesare consumed, such assteak and kidney pie,steak and ale pie,cottage pie,pork pie(usually eaten cold)^[257]and theCornish pasty.

Sausages are commonly eaten, either asbangers and mashortoad in the hole.Lancashire hotpotis a well-known stew originating in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses areCheddar,Red Leicester,Wensleydale,Double GloucesterandBlue Stilton. ManyAnglo-Indianhybrid dishes,curries, have been created, such aschicken tikka masalaandbalti. Traditional English dessert dishes includeapple pieor other fruit pies;spotted dick– all generally served withcustard; and, more recently,sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries includesconesserved with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves,Eccles cakesandmince piesas well as sweet or spiced biscuits.

Common non-alcoholic drinks include tea^[259]and coffee; frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wine,cidersandEnglish beers, such asbitter,mild,stoutandbrown ale.^[260]

The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock andcave artpieces, most prominent inNorth Yorkshire, Northumberland andCumbria, but also feature further south, for example atCreswell Crags.^[261]With the arrival ofRoman culturein the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those atLullingstoneandAldborough.^[262]During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in theStaffordshire Hoarddiscovered in 2009. Some of these blendedGaelic and Anglianstyles, such as theLindisfarne GospelsandVespasian Psalter.^[263]LaterGothic artwas popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such asBenedictional of St. ÆthelwoldandLuttrell Psalter.^[264]

The Tudor era sawprominent artistsas part of their court; portrait painting, which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by GermanHans Holbein, and natives such asNicholas Hilliardbuilt on this.^[264]Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period includeAnthony van Dyck,Peter Lely,Godfrey KnellerandWilliam Dobson.^[264]The 18th century saw the founding of theRoyal Academy; aclassicismbased on theHigh Renaissanceprevailed, withThomas GainsboroughandJoshua Reynoldsbecoming two of England's most treasured artists.^[264]

In the 19th century,John ConstableandJ. M. W. Turnerwere major landscape artists. TheNorwich Schoolcontinued the landscape tradition, while thePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, led by artists such asHolman Hunt,Dante Gabriel RossettiandJohn Everett Millais, revived theEarly Renaissancestyle with their vivid and detailed style.^[264]Prominent among 20th-century artists wasHenry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.^[265]TheRoyal Society of Artsis an organisation committed to the arts.^[266]

Early authors such asBedeandAlcuinwrote in Latin.^[267]The period ofOld English literatureprovided the epic poemBeowulfand the secular prose of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle,^[268]along with Christian writings such asJudith,Cædmon'sHymnandhagiographies.^[267]Following the Norman conquestLatincontinued among the educated classes, as well as anAnglo-Norman literature.

Middle English literatureemerged withGeoffrey Chaucer, author ofThe Canterbury Tales, along withGower, thePearl PoetandLangland.William of OckhamandRoger Bacon, who wereFranciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages.Julian of Norwich, who wroteRevelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With theEnglish Renaissanceliterature in theEarly Modern Englishstyle appeared.William Shakespeare, whose works includeHamlet,Romeo and Juliet,Macbeth, andA Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.^[269]

Christopher Marlowe,Edmund Spenser,Philip Sydney,Thomas Kyd,John Donne, andBen Jonsonare other established authors of theElizabethan age.^[270]Francis BaconandThomas Hobbeswrote onempiricismandmaterialism, includingscientific methodandsocial contract.^[270]Filmerwrote on theDivine Right of Kings.Marvellwas the best-known poet of theCommonwealth,^[271]whileJohn MiltonauthoredParadise Lostduring theRestoration.

Some of the most prominent philosophers of theEnlightenmentwereJohn Locke,Thomas Paine,Samuel JohnsonandJeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered byEdmund Burkewho is regarded as the founder of conservatism.^[273]The poetAlexander Popewith his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role inromanticism:Samuel Taylor Coleridge,Lord Byron,John Keats,Mary Shelley,Percy Bysshe Shelley,William BlakeandWilliam Wordsworthwere major figures.^[274]

In response to theIndustrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way betweenlibertyand tradition;William Cobbett,G. K. ChestertonandHilaire Bellocwere main exponents, while the founder ofguild socialism,Arthur Penty, andcooperative movementadvocateG. D. H. Coleare somewhat related.^[275]Empiricism continued throughJohn Stuart MillandBertrand Russell, whileBernard Williamswas involved inanalytics. Authors from around theVictorian eraincludeCharles Dickens, theBrontë sisters,Jane Austen,George Eliot,Rudyard Kipling,Thomas Hardy,H. G. WellsandLewis Carroll.^[276]Since then England has continued to produce novelists such asGeorge Orwell,D. H. Lawrence,Virginia Woolf,C. S. Lewis,Enid Blyton,Aldous Huxley,Agatha Christie,Terry Pratchett,J. R. R. Tolkien, andJ. K. Rowling.^[277]

The traditionalfolk music of Englandis centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostlysea shanties,jigs,hornpipesanddance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed byWynkyn de Wordein the 16th century, are an important artefact, as areJohn Playford'sThe Dancing MasterandRobert Harley'sRoxburghe Balladscollections.^[278]Some of the best-known songs areGreensleeves,Pastime with Good Company,Maggie MayandSpanish Ladiesamong others. Manynursery rhymesare of English origin such asMary, Mary, Quite Contrary,Roses Are Red,Jack and Jill,London Bridge Is Falling Down,The Grand Old Duke of York,Hey Diddle DiddleandHumpty Dumpty.^[279]Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships" and "God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen".

Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artistsThomas TallisandWilliam Byrd, followed byHenry Purcellfrom theBaroque periodandThomas Arnewho was well known for his patriotic songRule, Britannia!. German-bornGeorge Frideric Handelspent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon in Britain, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratorios,The Messiah,Solomon,Water Music, andMusic for the Royal Fireworks.^[280]

Classical music attracted much attention in the 18th century with the formation of theBirmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. TheEnglish Musical Renaissancewas a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at theRoyal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led byEdward Elgar,Benjamin Britten,Frederick Delius,Gustav Holst,Ralph Vaughan Williamsand others.^[282]Present-day composers from England includeMichael Nyman, best known forThe Piano, andAndrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in theWest Endand worldwide.

Inpopular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such asthe Beatles,Led Zeppelin,Pink Floyd,Elton John,Queen,Rod Stewart,David Bowie,the Rolling StonesandDef Leppardare among the highest-selling recording artists in the world.^[283]Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such asBritish invasion,progressive rock,hard rock,Mod,glam rock,heavy metal,Britpop,indie rock,gothic rock,shoegazing,acid house,garage,trip hop,drum and bassanddubstep.^[284]

Large outdoormusic festivalsin the summer and autumn are popular, such asGlastonbury,V Festival, and theReading and Leeds Festivals. England was at the forefront of the illegal, freeravemovement from the late 1980s, which inspired the pan-European culture ofteknivals.^[285]TheBoishakhi Melais aBengali New Yearfestival celebrated by theBritish Bangladeshicommunity. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After theNotting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the UK, attracting over 80,000 visitors.

The most prominentopera housein England is theRoyal Opera HouseatCovent Garden.^[286]The Promsis a major annual cultural event in the English calendar.^[286]The Royal Balletis one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies. TheRoyal Academy of Musicis the oldestconservatoirein the UK, founded in 1822, receiving itsroyal charterin 1830.^[287]England is home to numerous major orchestras such as theBBC Symphony Orchestra, theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra, thePhilharmonia Orchestra, and theLondon Symphony Orchestra.^[288]Other forms of entertainment that originated in England include thecircus^{[289][290][291]}and thepantomime.^[292]

England has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, includingAlfred Hitchcock,Charlie Chaplin,David Lean,Laurence Olivier,Vivien Leigh,John Gielgud,Peter Sellers,Julie Andrews,Michael Caine,Gary Oldman,Helen Mirren,Kate WinsletandDaniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers.^[293]Hitchcock'sThe Lodger: A Story of the London Fog(1926) helped shape thethrillergenre in film, while his 1929Blackmailis often regarded as the first Britishsoundfeature film.^[294]

Major film studios in England includePinewood,ElstreeandShepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of thehighest-grossing film franchises(Harry PotterandJames Bond).^[295]Ealing Studiosin London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.^[296]Famous for recording many motion picturefilm scores, theLondon Symphony Orchestrafirst performed film music in 1935.^[297]TheHammer Horrorfilms starringChristopher Leesaw the production of the first gory horror films showing blood and guts in colour.^[298]

TheBFI Top 100 British filmsincludesMonty Python's Life of Brian(1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.^[299]English producers are also active ininternational co-productionsand English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council rankedDavid Yates,Christopher Nolan,Mike Newell,Ridley ScottandPaul Greengrassthe five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.^[300]Other contemporary English directors includeSam Mendes,Guy RitchieandRichard Curtis. Current actors includeTom Hardy,Daniel Craig,Benedict Cumberbatch,Lena Headey,Felicity Jones,Emilia Clarke,Lashana Lynch, andEmma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work,Andy SerkisopenedThe Imaginarium Studiosin London in 2011.^[301]The visual effects companyFramestorein London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.^[302]Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people,storiesor events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films includeAlice in Wonderland,The Jungle BookandWinnie the Pooh.^[303]

English Heritageis a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by theDepartment for Culture, Media and Sport. A non-governmental charity, theNational Trustholds a complementary role, focussed on landscapes andcountry houses. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesfall within England.^[304]Some of the best-known of these are:Hadrian's Wall,Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, theTower of London, theJurassic Coast,Saltaire,Ironbridge Gorge,Blenheim Palaceand theLake District.^[305]

London'sBritish Museumholds more than seven million objects,^[306]one of the largest and most comprehensive collections in the world,^[307]illustrating and documenting global human culture from its beginnings to the present. TheBritish Libraryin London is thenational libraryand is one of the world's largestresearch libraries, holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats, including around 25 million books.^[308][309]TheNational GalleryinTrafalgar Squarehouses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.^[310]TheTategalleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host theTurner Prize.^[311]

TheSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sporthas overall responsibility for cultural property and heritage.^[312][313]Ablue plaque, the oldesthistorical markerscheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England.^[314]Entry to most museums and galleries is free.^[315]Londonis one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities inEurope. It is considered a global centre of finance, art and culture.^[316]

TheBBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.^[318][319]It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by thetelevision licence.^[320][321]TheBBC World Serviceis aninternational broadcasterowned and operated by theBBC. It is the world's largest of any kind.^[322]It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.^[323][324]

London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, althoughManchesteris also a significant national media centre. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.^[325]National newspapers produced in England includeThe Times,The Guardian,The Daily Telegraph, and theFinancial Times.^[326]

Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation includeNature,New Scientist,The Spectator,Prospect,NMEandThe Economist. TheSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sporthas overall responsibility over media and broadcasting in England.^[327]

England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th centurycodifiedmany sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England includeassociation football,^[328]cricket,rugby union,rugby league,tennis,boxing, badminton,squash,^[329]rounders,^[330]hockey,snooker,billiards,darts, table tennis,bowls,netball,thoroughbredhorseracing,greyhound racingandfox hunting. It has helped the development ofgolf, sailing andFormula One. England has been crowned world champion in several major sports including:Cricket,RugbyandAssociation Football.

Football is themost popularof these sports. TheEngland national football team, whose home venue isWembley Stadium, playedScotlandin the first-ever international football match in 1872.^[331]Referred to as the "home of football" byFIFA, England hosted and won the1966 FIFA World Cup.^[332]With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, thefinalis themost watched television event everin the UK.^[333]England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football:Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857, is the world's oldest club.^[328]TheEngland women's national football teamwon theUEFA Euro 2022, hosted by England.^[334]

Cricketis generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of theWeald.^[335]TheEngland cricket teamis a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries isThe Ashesseries between England andAustralia, contested since 1882.Lord's Cricket Groundsituated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".^[336]After winning the2019 Cricket World Cup, England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union, and cricket.^[337]

William Penny Brookeswas prominent in organising the format for the modernOlympic Games.^[338]London has hosted theSummer Olympic Gamesthree times, in1908,1948, and2012. England competes in theCommonwealth Games, held every four years.Sport Englandis the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.

Rugby unionoriginated inRugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.^[339]The top level of club participation is theEnglish Premiership.Rugby leaguewas born inHuddersfieldin 1895. Since 2008, theEngland national rugby league teamhas been a full test nation in lieu of theGreat Britain national rugby league team, which won threeWorld Cups. Club sides play inSuper League, the present-day embodiment of theRugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties ofLancashire, Yorkshire andCumbria.^[340]

Golfhas been prominent in England, due in part to itscultural and geographical ties to Scotland.^[341]There are professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: thePGAand theEuropean Tour. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major isThe Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, theRyder Cup, is named after English businessmanSamuel Ryder.^[342]

Tenniswas created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, andthe Wimbledon Championshipsis the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.^[343]Wimbledon has a major place in the English cultural calendar.^[344]

Inboxing, under theMarquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies.^[345]

Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, thethoroughbredis a horse breed best known for its use inhorse racing. TheNational Hunthorse race theGrand National, is held annually atAintree Racecoursein early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, and three-time winnerRed Rumis the most successful racehorse in the event's history.^[346]

The1950 British Grand PrixatSilverstonewas the first race in the newly createdFormula One World Championship.^[347][348]England has seen the manufacture some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations.^[349]England also has a rich heritage inGrand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycleroad racing, and has produced several world champions.^[350]

Dartsis a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, it is a traditionalpub game.^[351][352]Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games issnooker, and England has produced several world champions. The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitivesailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including thematch race, a regatta, and theAmerica's Cup.

The St George's Cross has been the nationalflag of Englandsince the 13th century. Originally, the flag was used by the maritimeRepublic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to theDoge of Genoafrom 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross was a symbol for manyCrusadersin the 12th and 13th centuries, and became associated withSaint George.^[353]Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of theUnion Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by KingJames I.^[214]During theEnglish Civil WarandInterregnum, theNew Model Army's standards and theCommonwealth'sGreat Sealboth incorporated the flag of Saint George.^[354][355]

There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including theTudor rose, the nation'sfloral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on theRoyal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of theWars of the Rosesas a symbol of peace.^[356]It is asyncreticsymbol in that it merged the white rose of theYorkistsand the red rose of theLancastrians. It is also known as theRose of England.^[357]Theoaktree is a symbol of England: theRoyal Oaksymbol andOak Apple Daycommemorate the escape of KingCharles IIafter his father's execution, when he hid in an oak to avoid detection by the parliamentarians before safely reaching exile.

The Royal Arms of England, a nationalcoat of armsfeaturing three lions, originated withRichard the Lionheartin 1198. It isblazonedasgules, three lions passant guardant orand it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England. England does not have an official national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole hasGod Save the King. However,Jerusalem,Land of Hope and Glory(used for England during the2002 Commonwealth Games),^[358]andI Vow to Thee, My Countryare often considered unofficialEnglish national anthems. England'sNational Dayis 23 April which isSaint George's Day: Saint George is the patron saint of England.^[359]

• Outline of England
• Outline of the United Kingdom

• English Heritage– national body protecting English heritage
• Natural England– wildlife and the natural world of England
• VisitEngland– English tourist board
• BBC News – England– news items from BBC News relating to England
• GOV.UK– official website of the British Government
• Geographic data related toEnglandatOpenStreetMap

53°08′N1°23′W / 53.13°N 1.38°W /53.13; -1.38