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Drawing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Drawing (disambiguation).
Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man( c.  1485) Accademia, Venice

Drawingis avisual artthat uses an instrument to markpaperor anothertwo-dimensionalsurface. The instruments used to make a drawing arepencils,crayons,penswithinks,brusheswithpaints, or combinations of these, and in more modern times,computer styluseswithgraphics tabletsorgamepadsinVRdrawing software.

A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing ispaper, although other materials, such ascardboard,vellum,wood, plastic,leather,canvas, andboard, have been used. Temporary drawings may be made on ablackboardorwhiteboard. Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas.[1]The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities.

In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercialillustration,animation,architecture,engineering, andtechnical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called asketch. Anartistwho practices or works in technical drawing may be called adrafter, draftsman, or draughtsman.[2]

Overview

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Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.[3]Traditional drawings weremonochrome, or at least had little colour,[4]while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing andpainting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similarmediaoften are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used inpastelpaintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Using a brush for drawing is very widespread and here it is more the process of using lines and hatching, that characterises something as a drawing. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes anunderdrawingis drawn first on that same support.

Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called sketches.

There are several categories of drawing, includingfigure drawing,cartooning,doodling, andfreehand. There are also many drawing methods, such asline drawing, stippling,shading, the surrealist method ofentopic graphomania(in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such astracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper).

A quick, unrefined drawing may be called asketch.

In fields outside art,technical drawingsor plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing.

History

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In communication

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Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication.[5]It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language,[5][6]demonstrated by the production ofcave and rock paintingsaround 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic).[7]These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.[8]The sketches and paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol systems (proto-writing) and eventually into earlywriting systems.

In manuscripts

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Before the widespread availability of paper in Europe,monksin European monasteries used drawings, either asunderdrawingsforilluminated manuscriptson vellum or parchment, or as the final image. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation.

In science

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Galileo Galilei, Phases of the Moon, 1609 or 1610, brown ink and wash on paper. 208 × 142 mm. National Central Library (Florence), Gal. 48, fol. 28r

Drawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study.

In 1609, astronomerGalileo Galileiexplained the changing phases of Venus and also thesunspotsthrough his observational telescopic drawings.[9]In 1924, geophysicistAlfred Wegenerused illustrations to visually demonstrate the origin of the continents.[9]

As artistic expression

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Drawing is one of the easiest ways to visualise ideas and to express one's creativity; therefore it has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practice.[10]Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings.[11]Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work.[12][13]TheRenaissancebrought about a great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling artists to represent things more realistically than before,[14]and revealing an interest in geometry and philosophy.[15]

The invention of the first widely available form ofphotographyled to a shift in the hierarchy of the arts.[16]Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice was given less emphasis as an essential skill for artists, particularly so in Western society.[9]

Notable artists and draftsmen

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Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such asAlbrecht DürerandMartin Schongauer(c. 1448–1491), the first Northern engraver known by name. Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of goldsmiths. Albrecht Dürer, a master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith.[17][18]

Old Master Drawings often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced, and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time. In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought privately. Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly finished works of art. Italian drawings, however, show the influence of Catholicism and the Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage. The same is often true of French drawings, although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism[19]meant drawings were less Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement.[20]

In the 20th centuryModernismencouraged "imaginative originality"[21]and some artists' approach to drawing became less literal, more abstract. World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge the status quo, with drawing being very much at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique.[22]

Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing, refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets.[23]

The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct language of drawing, including:

Materials

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Themediumis the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media either are dry (e.g.graphite,charcoal,pastels,Conté,silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker,pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded)invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either silver or lead.[25]More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint.

Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets.[26]Papers vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast.

Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and roughsketches.Tracing paperis used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another.Cartridge paperis the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads.Bristol boardand even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture.

Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer thanwood pulpbased paper such asnewsprint, which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner.

The basic tools are adrawing boardor table,pencil sharpeneranderaser, and for ink drawing,blotting paper. Other tools used arecircle compass,ruler, andset square.Fixativeis used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging.Drafting tapeis used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting.

Technique

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Antoine Watteau, trois crayonstechnique

Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some handicapped individuals who draw with their mouth or feet.[27]

Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects.

Raphael, study for what became the Alba Madonna, with other sketches

The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often usehatching– groups of parallel lines.[28]Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone.Stipplinguses dots to producetone,textureandshade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone.[29]

Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image.Eraserscan remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.

Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted withmasking fluidor cut out of afrisketand applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed.

Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-onfixativeto the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.

Another technique issubtractive drawingin which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image.[30]

Tone

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A pencil portrait by Henry Macbeth-Raeburn, with hatching and shading (1909)

Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.

Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediatelyfixitself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use ablending stump,tissue, akneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece ofchamoisis useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point.

Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing includehatchingandstippling. A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface.

Form and proportion

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Proportions of the human body

Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as acompasscan be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. Arulercan be used both as astraightedgeand a device to compute proportions.

Variation of proportion with age

When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent.[31]

A more refined art offigure drawingrelies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.

Perspective

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Main article: Perspective
Two-point perspective drawing

Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point.

When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective.[32]Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective.

An artist drawing a figurefrom worm's-eye perspective

Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similarsizeshould appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use oftexture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect ofatmospherichaze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.

Composition

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Study drawingwith white highlights by William-Adolphe Bouguereau

Thecompositionof the image is an important element in producing an interesting work ofartistic merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.

Theilluminationof the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay oflight and shadowis a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. Theplacement of the light sourcescan make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.

When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed thenegative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed.

Astudyis a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.

Process

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A young woman drawing the Barberini Faunin Munich

Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings.[33]A visually accurate drawing is described as being "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail".[34]

Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making, the drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions.[34]Following this hypothesis, several studies have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of drawings.

Drawing process in the Academic Study of a Male Torsoby Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres(1801, National Museum, Warsaw)
Motor control

Motor control is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing process.[35]It has been suggested that motor control plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant.[34]

Perception

It has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most important stage in the drawing process.[34]This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a robust relationship between perception and drawing ability.[36]

This evidence acted as the basis ofBetty Edwards' how-to-draw book,Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain.[37]Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities.

Furthermore, the influential artist and art criticJohn Ruskinemphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his bookThe Elements of Drawing.[38]He stated that "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see".

Visual memory

This has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings.Short-term memoryplays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.[39]

Decision-making

Some studies comparing artists to non-artists have found that artists spend more time thinking strategically while drawing. In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing.[40]

See also

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References

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Notes

  1. ^www.sbctc.edu (adapted)."Module 6: Media for 2-D Art"(PDF). Saylor.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2012-08-09. Retrieved2 April2012.
  2. ^"Draftsman Definition & Meaning".Dictionary.com.
  3. ^McManus, I. C.; Chamberlain, R; Loo, P-W; Riley, H; Rankin, Q; Brunswick, N (2010)."Art Students Who Cannot Draw: Exploring the Relations Between Drawing Ability, Visual Memory, Accuracy of Copying, and Dyslexia"(PDF).University College London. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, vol. 4, no. 1, 18 –30. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-03-03. Retrieved2014-03-11.
  4. ^Seegrisailleandchiaroscuro
  5. ^abTversky, B (2011). "Visualizing thought".Topics in Cognitive Science.3(3): 499–535.doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01113.x.PMID25164401.
  6. ^Farthing, S (2011)."The Bigger Picture of Drawing"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-03-17. Retrieved2014-03-11.
  7. ^Thinking Through Drawing: Practice into KnowledgeArchived2014-03-17 at theWayback Machine2011c[page needed]
  8. ^Robinson, A (2009).Writing and script: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
  9. ^abcKovats, T (2005).The Drawing Book. London: Black Dog Publishing.ISBN9781904772330.
  10. ^Walker, J. F; Duff, L; Davies, J (2005). "Old Manuals and New Pencils".Drawing- The Process. Bristol:Intellect Books.
  11. ^See the discussion on erasable drawing boards and 'tafeletten' invan de Wetering, Ernst.Rembrandt: The Painter at Work.
  12. ^Burton, J."Preface"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-03-17. Retrieved2014-03-11.
  13. ^Chamberlain, R (2013).Drawing Conclusions: An exploration of the cognitive and neuroscientific foundations of representational drawing(Doctoral).
  14. ^Davis, P; Duff, L; Davies, J (2005). "Drawing a Blank".Drawing – The Process. Bristol: Intellect Books. pp.15–25.ISBN9781841500768.
  15. ^Simmons, S (2011)."Philosophical Dimension of Drawing Instruction"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-03-17. Retrieved2014-03-11.
  16. ^Poe, E. A. (1840).The Daguerreotype. Classic Essays on Photography. New Haven, CN: Leete's Island Books. pp. 37–38.
  17. ^"Collecting guide: Old Master prints".Christie's. 1 July 2020.
  18. ^Hinrich Sieveking, "German Draughtsmanship in the Ages of Dürer and Goethe", British Museum. Accessed 20 February 2016
  19. ^Barbara Hryszko, A Painter as a Draughtsman. Typology and Terminology of Drawings in Academic Didactics and Artistic Practice in France in 17th Century [dans:] Metodologia, metoda i terminologia grafiki i rysunku. Teoria i praktyka, ed. Jolanta Talbierska, Warszawa 2014, pp. 169-176.
  20. ^"Collecting guide: Old Master drawings".Christie's. 23 June 2021.
  21. ^Duff, L; Davies, J (2005).Drawing – The Process. Bristol: Intellect Books.ISBN9781841509075.
  22. ^Gompertz, Will (2009-02-12)."My life in art: How Jean-Michel Basquiat taught me to forget about technique".the Guardian. Retrieved2018-04-20.
  23. ^"boom for real: a dictionary of basquiat".I-d. 2017-09-26. Retrieved2018-04-20.
  24. ^ArtCyclopedia, February 2003, "Masterful Leonardo and Graphic Dürer". Accessed 20 February 2016
  25. ^lara Broecke,Cennino Cennini'sIl Libro dell'Arte: a new English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription, Archetype 2015
  26. ^Mayer, Ralph (1991).The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques. Viking.ISBN978-0-670-83701-4.
  27. ^"The Amazing Art of Disabled Artists". Webdesigner Depot. 16 March 2010. Retrieved1 January2017.
  28. ^This is unrelated to thehatching systemin heraldry that indicatestincture(i.e., the color of arms depicted in monochrome.)
  29. ^Guptill, Arthur L. (1930).Drawing with Pen and Ink. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation.
  30. ^South, Helen,The Everything Drawing Book, Adams Media, Avon, MA, 2004, pp. 152–53,ISBN1-59337-213-2
  31. ^Hale, Robert Beverly (1964).Drawing Lessons from the Great Masters(45th Anniversary ed.). Watson-Guptill Publications (published 2009).ISBN978-0-8230-1401-9.
  32. ^Watson, Ernest W. (1978).Course in Pencil Sketching: Four Books in One. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp. 167–75.ISBN978-0-442-29229-4.
  33. ^Ostrofsky, J (2011)."A Multi-Stage Attention Hypothesis of Drawing Ability"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-03-17. Retrieved2014-03-11.
  34. ^abcdCohen, D. J; Bennett, S. (1997). "Why can't most people draw what they see?".Journal of Experimental Psychology.67(6): 609–21.doi:10.1037/0096-1523.23.3.609.PMID9180037.
  35. ^van Somers, P (1989). "A system for drawing and drawing-related neuropsychology".Cognitive Neuropsychology.6(2): 117–64.doi:10.1080/02643298908253416.
  36. ^Cohen, D. J.; Jones, H. E. (2008)."How shape constanct related to drawing accuracy"(PDF).Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts.2(1): 8–19.doi:10.1037/1931-3896.2.1.8.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2017-08-09.
  37. ^Edwards, B (1989).Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. New York: Putnam.ISBN978-1-58542-920-2.
  38. ^Ruskin, John (1857).The Elements of Drawing. Mineola, NY: Dover Publishcations Inc.
  39. ^McManus, I. C.; Chamberlain, R. S.; Loo, P.-K.; Rankin, Q.; Riley, H.; Brunswick, N. (2010)."Art students who cannot draw: exploring the relations between drawing ability, visual memory, accuracy of copying, and dyslexia"(PDF).Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts.4: 18–30.CiteSeerX10.1.1.654.5263.doi:10.1037/a0017335. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2017-10-26. Retrieved2017-10-25.
  40. ^Fayena-Tawil, F.; Kozbelt, A.; Sitaras, S. (2011). "Think global, act local: A protocol analysis comparison of artists' and nonartists' cognitions, metacognitions, and evaluations while drawing".Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts.5(2): 135–45.doi:10.1037/a0021019.

Further reading

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Look up drawingin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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