Wales

Wales Cymru (Welsh)
Flag Royal Badge
Anthem:de facto;[1] "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" ("Land of My Fathers")
Location of Wales (dark green) – inEurope(green & dark grey) – in theUnited Kingdom(green)
Status	Country
Capital and largest city	Cardiff 51°29′N3°11′W / 51.483°N 3.183°W /51.483; -3.183
Official languages	English Welsh
Ethnic groups ( 2021) [2]	List 93.8%White 2.9%Asian 1.6%Mixed 0.9%Black 0.9%other
Religion (2021) [2]	List 46.5%no religion 43.6%Christianity 2.2%Islam 0.4%Hinduism 0.3%Buddhism 0.1%Sikhism 0.1%Judaism 0.5%other 6.3% not stated
Demonym(s)	Welsh (Cymraeg)
Sovereign state Legal jurisdiction	United Kingdom England and Wales
Government	Devolved parliamentary legislaturewithin parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
• First Minister	Eluned Morgan
Parliament of the United Kingdom
•Secretary of State	Jo Stevens
•House of Commons	32 MPs(of 650)
Legislature	Senedd
Formation
• Unified by Gruffydd ap Llywelyn	1057[3]
• Statute of Rhuddlan	3 March 1284[4]
• Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542	1543[5]
• Welsh Language Act 1967	27 July 1967[6]
• Devolution	1 July 1999[a][7]
Area
• Total [c]	21,218 km2(8,192 sq mi)[8]
• Land [b]	20,737 km2(8,007 sq mi)[9]
Population
• 2022 estimate	3,131,640[9]
• 2021 census	3,107,494[2]
• Density	151/km2(391.1/sq mi)[9]
GVA	2022 estimate
• Total	£74.5 billion
• Per capita	£23,804[10]
GDP(nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	£85.4 billion
• Per capita	£27,274[11]
Gini(2016⁠–⁠19)	30[12] medium inequality
HDI(2021)	0.898[13] very high
Currency	Pound sterling(GBP;£)
Time zone	UTC+0(GMT)
• Summer ( DST)	UTC+1(BST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
Drives on	left
Calling code	+44
ISO 3166 code	GB-WLS
Internet TLD	.wales.cymru[d]

Wales(Welsh:Cymru[ˈkəmrɨ]^ⓘ) is acountrythat is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by theIrish Seato the north and west, England to theeast, theBristol Channelto the south, and theCeltic Seato the south-west. As of 2021^[update], it had a population of 3,107,494.^[2]It has a total area of 21,218 square kilometres (8,192 sq mi) and over 2,700 kilometres (1,680 mi) ofcoastline.^[8]It is largely mountainous with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, includingSnowdon(Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit.^[14]The country lies within thenorth temperate zoneand has a changeable,maritime climate. The capital and largest city isCardiff.

A distinctWelsh cultureemerged among theCeltic Britonsafter theRoman withdrawal from Britainin the 5th century, and Wales was briefly united underGruffydd ap Llywelynin 1055. After over 200 years of war, theconquest of Walesby KingEdward I of Englandwas completed by 1283, thoughOwain Glyndŵrled theWelsh RevoltagainstEnglish rulein the early 15th century, and briefly re-established an independent Welsh state with its own national parliament (Welsh:senedd). In the 16th century the whole of Wales wasannexedby England and incorporated within theEnglish legal systemunder theLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. DistinctiveWelsh politicsdeveloped in the 19th century.Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century byDavid Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth ofsocialismand theLabour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century: anationalistparty,Plaid Cymru, was formed in 1925, and theWelsh Language Societyin 1962. A governing system ofWelsh devolutionis employed in Wales, of which the most major step was the formation of theSenedd(Welsh Parliament, formerly the National Assembly for Wales) in 1998, responsible for a range ofdevolved policy matters.

At the dawn of theIndustrial Revolution, development of theminingandmetallurgicalindustries transformed the country from anagricultural societyinto anindustrialone; theSouth Wales Coalfield's exploitation caused a rapid expansion of Wales's population. Two-thirds of the population live inSouth Wales, includingCardiff,Swansea,Newport, and thenearby valleys. Theeastern regionofNorth Waleshas about a sixth of the overall population, withWrexhambeing the largest northern city. The remaining parts of Wales aresparsely populated. Now that the country's traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, theeconomyis based on thepublic sector, light and service industries, andtourism.Agriculture in Walesis largely livestock-based, making Wales a net exporter of animal produce, contributing towards nationalagricultural self-sufficiency.

The country has a distinctnationalandcultural identityand from the late 19th century onwards Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", in part due to theeisteddfodtradition and rousingchoirsinging. BothWelshand English areofficial languages. A majority of the population in most areas speaks English while the majority of the population in parts of thenorthandwestspeak Welsh, with a total of 538,300Welsh speakersacross the entire country. Wales hasfour UNESCO world heritage sites, of which three are in the north.

The English words "Wales" and "Welsh" derive from the sameOld Englishroot (singularWealh, pluralWēalas), a descendant ofProto-Germanic*Walhaz, which was itself derived from the name of theGaulsknown to the Romans asVolcae. This term was later used to refer indiscriminately to inhabitants of theWestern Roman Empire.^[15]Anglo-Saxonscame to use the term to refer to theBritonsin particular; the plural formWēalasevolved into the name for their territory, Wales.^[16][17]Historically inBritain, the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to refer to anything that Anglo-Saxons associated with Britons, including other non-Germanic territories in Britain (e.g.Cornwall) and places in Anglo-Saxon territory associated with Britons (e.g.Walworthin County Durham andWaltonin West Yorkshire).^[18]

The modern Welsh name for themselves isCymry, andCymruis the Welsh name for Wales. These words (both of which are pronounced[ˈkəm.rɨ]) are descended from theBrythonicwordcombrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen",^[19][20]and probably came into use before the 7th century.^[21]In literature, they could be speltKymryorCymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland.^[19]TheLatinisedforms of these names,Cambrian,CambricandCambria, survive as names such as theCambrian Mountainsand theCambriangeological period.^[22]

Wales has been inhabited bymodern humansfor at least 29,000 years.^[23]Continuous human habitation dates from the end of thelast ice age, between 12,000 and 10,000years before present (BP), whenMesolithichunter-gatherersfrom Central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain. At that time, sea levels were much lower than today. Wales was free ofglaciersby about 10,250 BP, the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded. The post-glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland, forming theIrish Sea. By 8,000 BP the British Peninsula had become an island.^[24]By the beginning of theNeolithic(c. 6,000 BP) sea levels in theBristol Channelwere still about 33 feet (10 metres) lower than today.^[25]The historianJohn Daviestheorised that the story ofCantre'r Gwaelod's drowning and tales in theMabinogion, of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower, may be distant folk memories of this time.^[26]

Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous people, gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers about 6,000 BP – theNeolithic Revolution.^[26][27]They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land, developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production, and builtcromlechssuch asPentre Ifan,Bryn Celli Ddu, andParc Cwm long cairnbetween about 5,800 BP and 5,500 BP.^[28]Over the following centuries they assimilated immigrants and adopted ideas fromBronze AgeandIron AgeCelticcultures. Some historians, such asJohn T. Koch, consider Wales in the Late Bronze Age as part ofa maritime trading-networked culturethat included otherCeltic nations.^[29]This "Atlantic-Celtic" view is opposed by others who hold that the Celtic languages derive their origins from the more easterlyHallstatt culture.^[30]By the time of theRoman invasion of Britainthe area of modern Wales had been divided among the tribes of theDeceangli(north-east),Ordovices(north-west),Demetae(south-west),Silures(south-east), andCornovii(east).^[26][31]

The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete; the occupation lasted over 300 years. The campaigns of conquest were opposed by two native tribes: theSiluresand theOrdovices. Caractacus orCaradog, leader of the Ordovices, had initial success in resisting Roman invasions of north Wales but was eventually defeated.^[32][33]Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation, save for the southern coastal region ofsouth Wales, where there is a legacy of Romanisation.^[34]The only town in Wales founded by the Romans,Caerwent, is in south east Wales.^[35]Both Caerwent andCarmarthen, also in southern Wales, became Romancivitates.^[36]Wales had a rich mineral wealth. The Romans used their engineeringtechnologyto extract large amounts of gold, copper, and lead, as well as lesser amounts ofzincand silver.^[37]No significant industries were located in Wales in this time;^[37]this was largely a matter of circumstance as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation. Latin became the official language of Wales, though the people continued to speak in Brythonic. While Romanisation was far from complete, the upper classes came to consider themselves Roman, particularly after theruling of 212that grantedRoman citizenshipto all free men throughout the Empire.^[38]Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity, which gained many followers when Christians were allowed to worship freely; state persecution ceased in the 4th century, as a result ofConstantine the Greatissuing anedict of tolerationin 313.^[38]

Early historians, including the 6th-century clericGildas, have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history.^[39]In that year, the Roman generalMagnus Maximus, or Macsen Wledig, stripped Britain of troops to launch a successful bid for imperial power, continuing to rule Britain fromGaulas emperor, and transferring power to local leaders.^[40]The earliest Welsh genealogies cite Maximus as the founder of several royal dynasties,^[41]and as the father of the Welsh Nation.^[39]He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on thePillar of Eliseg, erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of theFifteen Tribes of Wales.^[42]

The 400-year period following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales.^[38]After theRoman departurein AD 410, much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east was overrun by variousGermanic peoples, commonly known as Anglo-Saxons. Some have theorized that the cultural dominance of the Anglo-Saxons was due to apartheid-like social conditions in which the Britons were at a disadvantage.^[43]By AD 500 the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule.^[38]The kingdoms ofGwynedd,Powys,Dyfed,Caredigion,Morgannwg, theYstrad Tywi, andGwentemerged as independent Welshsuccessor states.^[38]Archaeological evidence, in the Low Countries and what was to become England, shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles.^[44]John Davies notes this as consistent with a victory for theCeltic BritonsatBadon Hillagainst the Saxons, which was attributed toArthurbyNennius.^[44]

Having lost much of what is now theWest MidlandstoMerciain the 6th and early 7th centuries, a resurgent late-7th-century Powys checked Mercian advances.Æthelbald of Mercia, looking to defend recently acquired lands, had builtWat's Dyke. According to Davies, this had been with the agreement of kingElisedd ap Gwylogof Powys, as this boundary, extending north from the valley of theRiver Severnto the Dee estuary, gave himOswestry.^[45]Another theory, after carbon dating placed the dyke's existence 300 years earlier, is that it was built by the post-Roman rulers ofWroxeter.^[46]KingOffa of Merciaseems to have continued this initiative when he created a larger earthwork, now known asOffa's Dyke(Clawdd Offa). Davies wrote ofCyril Fox's study of Offa's Dyke: "In the planning of it, there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On the Long Mountain nearTrelystan, the dyke veers to the east, leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh; nearRhiwabon, it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden." And, for Gwent, Offa had the dyke built "on the eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of recognizing that theRiver Wyeand its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent."^[45]However, Fox's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research.^[47]

In 853, theVikingsraidedAnglesey, but in 856,Rhodri Mawrdefeated and killed their leader, Gorm.^[48]TheCeltic Britonsof Wales made peace with the Vikings andAnarawd ap Rhodriallied with the Norsemen occupyingNorthumbriato conquer the north.^[49]This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement withAlfred, king ofWessex, with whom he fought against the west Welsh. According toAnnales Cambriae, in 894, "Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste toCeredigionandYstrad Tywi."^[50]

The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh asLloegyr(Modern WelshLloegr), which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole.^[e]The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably calledSaeson, meaning "Saxons". The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British*Walha, meaning 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger'.^[51]The Welsh continued to call themselvesBrythoniaid(Brythons or Britons) well into theMiddle Ages, though the first written evidence of the use ofCymruandy Cymryis found in a praise poem toCadwallon ap Cadfan(Moliant Cadwallon, byAfan Ferddig)c. 633.^[16]InArmes Prydein, believed to be written around 930–942, the wordsCymryandCymroare used as often as 15 times.^[52]However, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards, the people gradually begin to adopt the nameCymryoverBrythoniad.^[53]

From 800 onwards, a series of dynastic marriages led toRhodri Mawr's (r.844–77) inheritance ofGwyneddandPowys. His sons founded the three dynasties of (AberffrawforGwynedd,DinefwrforDeheubarthandMathrafalforPowys).Rhodri's grandsonHywel Dda(r. 900–50) foundedDeheubarthout of his maternal and paternal inheritances ofDyfedandSeisyllwgin 930, ousted theAberffrawdynasty fromGwyneddandPowysand then codifiedWelsh lawin the 940s.^[54]

Gruffydd ap Llywelynwas the only ruler to unite all of Wales under his rule, described by one chronicler after his death asking of Wales. In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rivalGruffydd ap Rhydderchin battle and recapturedDeheubarth.^[55]Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. He ruled Wales with no internal battles.^[56]His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.^[57]John Daviesstates thatGruffyddwas "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship ofGruffydd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor."^[3]Owain Gwynedd(1100–1170) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the titleprinceps Wallensium(prince of the Welsh), a title of substance given his victory on theBerwyn range, according to Davies.^[58]During this time, between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace.^[59]

Within four years of theBattle of Hastings(1066), England had beencompletely subjugatedby theNormans.^[3]William I of Englandestablished a series of lordships, allocated to his most powerful warriors, along the Welsh border, their boundaries fixed only to the east (where they met other feudal properties inside England).^[60]Starting in the 1070s, these lords began conquering land in southern and eastern Wales, west of theRiver Wye. The frontier region, and any English-held lordships in Wales, became known asMarchia Wallie, theWelsh Marches, in which theMarcher lordswere subject to neitherEnglishnorWelsh law.^[61]The extent of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed.^[62]

Owain Gwynedd's grandsonLlywelyn Fawr(the Great, 1173–1240), received thefealtyof other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council atAberdyfi, becoming in effect the firstprince of Wales.^[63]His grandsonLlywelyn ap Gruffuddsecured the recognition of the titlePrince of WalesfromHenry IIIwith theTreaty of Montgomeryin 1267.^[64]Subsequent disputes, including the imprisonment ofLlywelyn's wifeEleanor, culminated in the first invasion by KingEdward I of England.^[65]As a result of military defeat, theTreaty of AberconwyexactedLlywelyn's fealty to England in 1277.^[65]Peace was short-lived, and, with the 1282Edwardian conquest, the rule of the Welsh princes permanently ended. WithLlywelyn's death and his brother princeDafydd's execution, the few remainingWelsh lordsdidhomagetoEdward I of England.^[66]TheStatute of Rhuddlanin 1284 provided the constitutional basis for a post-conquest government of thePrincipality of North Walesfrom 1284 until 1535/36.^[67]It defined Wales as "annexed and united" to the English Crown, separate from England but under the same monarch. The king ruled directly in two areas: the Statute divided the north and delegated administrative duties to theJustice of ChesterandJusticiar of North Wales, and further south in western Wales the King's authority was delegated to theJusticiar of South Wales. The existing royal lordships ofMontgomeryandBuilth Wellsremained unchanged.^[68]To maintain his dominance, Edward constructed a series of castles:Beaumaris,Caernarfon,HarlechandConwy. His son, the futureEdward II, was born atCaernarfonin 1284.^[69]He became the first English prince of Wales in 1301, which at the time provided an income from northwest Wales known as thePrincipality of Wales.^[70]

Afterthe failed revolt in 1294–1295ofMadog ap Llywelyn– who styled himself Prince of Wales in thePenmachno Document– and the rising ofLlywelyn Bren(1316), the last uprising was led byOwain Glyndŵr, againstHenry IV of England. In 1404,Owainwas crowned prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France, Spain (Castille) and Scotland.^[71]Glyndŵrwent on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns, including a Welsh parliament (Welsh:senedd) atMachynlleth. The rebellion was eventually defeated by 1412. Having failedOwainwent into hiding and nothing was known of him after 1413.^[72][73]Thepenal laws against the Welshof 1401–02 passed by theEnglish parliamentmade the Welsh second-class citizens. With hopes of independence ended, there were no further wars or rebellions against English colonial rule and the laws remained on the statute books until 1624.^[74]

Henry Tudor(born in Wales in 1457) seized the throne of England fromRichard III of Englandin 1485, uniting England and Wales under one royal house. The last remnants of Celtic-traditionWelsh lawwere abolished and replaced by English law by theLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542during the reign of Henry VII's son,Henry VIII.^[75]In the legal jurisdiction ofEngland and Wales, Wales became unified with the kingdom of England; the "Principality of Wales" began to refer to the whole country, though it remained a "principality" only in a ceremonial sense.^[67][76]The Marcher lordships were abolished, and Wales began electing members of the Westminster parliament.^[77]

In 1536 Wales had around 278,000 inhabitants, which increased to around 360,000 by 1620. This was primarily due to rural settlement, where animal farming was central to the Welsh economy. Increase in trade and increased economic stability occurred due to the increased diversity of the Welsh economy. Population growth however outpaced economic growth and the standard of living dropped.^[78]

Prior to theIndustrial Revolution in Wales, there were small-scale industries scattered throughout Wales.^[79]These ranged from those connected to agriculture, such as milling and themanufacture of woollen textiles, through to mining and quarrying.^[79]Agriculture remained the dominant source of wealth.^[79]The emerging industrial period saw the development of copper smelting in theSwanseaarea. With access to local coal deposits and a harbour that connected it with Cornwall's copper mines in the south and the large copper deposits atParys Mountainon Anglesey, Swansea developed into the world's major centre for non-ferrous metal smelting in the 19th century.^[79]The second metal industry to expand in Wales was iron smelting, and iron manufacturing became prevalent in both the north and the south of the country.^[80]In the north,John Wilkinson's Ironworks atBershamwas a major centre, while in the south, atMerthyr Tydfil, the ironworks ofDowlais,Cyfarthfa, Plymouth andPenydarrenbecame the most significant hub of iron manufacture in Wales.^[80]By the 1820s, south Wales produced 40 per cent of all Britain'spig iron.^[80]

By the 18th century, lawyers, doctors, estate agents and government officials formed abourgeoisiewith sizeable houses.^[78]In the late 18th century,slate quarryingbegan to expand rapidly, most notably in North Wales. ThePenrhyn quarry, opened in 1770 byRichard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn, was employing 15,000 men by the late 19th century,^[81]and along withDinorwic quarry, it dominated the Welsh slate trade. Although slate quarrying has been described as "the most Welsh of Welsh industries",^[82]it is coal mining which became the industry synonymous with Wales and its people. Initially, coal seams were exploited to provide energy for local metal industries but, with the opening of canal systems and later the railways, Welsh coal mining saw an explosion in demand. As theSouth Wales Coalfieldwas exploited, Cardiff, Swansea,PenarthandBarrygrew as world exporters of coal. By its height in 1913, Wales was producing almost 61 million tons of coal.^[83]

HistorianKenneth Morgandescribed Wales on the eve of theFirst World Waras a "relatively placid, self-confident and successful nation". The output from the coalfields continued to increase, with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913.^[84]The First World War (1914–1918) saw a total of 272,924 Welshmen under arms, representing 21.5 per cent of the male population. Of these, roughly 35,000 were killed,^[85]with particularly heavy losses ofWelsh forcesatMametz Woodon the Somme and theBattle of Passchendaele.^[86]

The first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales. Since 1865, theLiberal Partyhad held a parliamentary majority in Wales and, following thegeneral election of 1906, only one non-Liberal Member of Parliament,Keir HardieofMerthyr Tydfil, represented a Welsh constituency at Westminster. Yet by 1906, industrial dissension and political militancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the southern coalfields.^[87]In 1916,David Lloyd Georgebecame the first Welshman to become Prime Minister of Britain.^[88]In December 1918, Lloyd George was re-elected as the head of a Conservative-dominated coalition government, and his poor handling of the 1919 coal miners' strike was a key factor in destroying support for the Liberal party in south Wales.^[89]The industrial workers of Wales began shifting towards theLabour Party. When in 1908 theMiners' Federation of Great Britainbecame affiliated to the Labour Party, the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all elected as MPs. By 1922, half the Welsh seats at Westminster were held by Labour politicians—the start of a Labour dominance of Welsh politics that continued into the 21st century.^[90]

After economic growth in the first two decades of the 20th century, Wales's staple industries endured a prolonged slump from the early 1920s to the late 1930s, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty.^[91]For the first time in centuries, the population of Wales went into decline; unemployment reduced only with the production demands of theSecond World War.^[92]The war saw Welsh servicemen and women fight in all major theatres, with some 15,000 of them killed. Bombing raids brought high loss of life as theGerman Air Forcetargeted the docks atSwansea,CardiffandPembroke. After 1943, 10 per cent of Welsh conscripts aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines, where there were labour shortages; they became known asBevin Boys.Pacifistnumbers during both World Wars were fairly low, especially in the Second World War, which was seen as a fight againstfascism.^[93]

Plaid Cymruwas formed in 1925, seeking greater autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK.^[94]The term "England and Wales" became common for describing the area to which English law applied, and in 1955 Cardiff was proclaimed as Wales's capital.Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg(The Welsh Language Society) was formed in 1962, in response to fears that the language might soon die out.^[95]Nationalist sentiment grew following theflooding of the Tryweryn valleyin 1965 to create a reservoir to supply water to the English city ofLiverpool.^[96]Although 35 of the 36 Welsh MPs voted against the bill (one abstained), Parliament passed the bill and the village ofCapel Celynwas submerged, highlighting Wales's powerlessness in her own affairs in the face of the numerical superiority of English MPs in Parliament.^[97]Separatist groupings, such as theFree Wales ArmyandMudiad Amddiffyn Cymruwere formed, conducting campaigns from 1963.^[98]Prior to theinvestitureofCharlesin 1969, these groups were responsible for a number of bomb attacks on infrastructure.^[99]At a by-election in 1966,Gwynfor Evanswon the parliamentary seat ofCarmarthen, Plaid Cymru's first Parliamentary seat.^[100]

By the end of the 1960s, the policy of bringing businesses into disadvantaged areas of Wales through financial incentives had proven very successful in diversifying the industrial economy.^[101]This policy, begun in 1934, was enhanced by the construction ofindustrial estatesand improvements in transport communications,^[101]most notably theM4 motorwaylinking south Wales directly to London. It was believed that the foundations for stable economic growth had been firmly established in Wales during this period, but this was shown to be optimistic after therecession of the early 1980ssaw the collapse of much of the manufacturing base that had been built over the preceding forty years.^[102]

TheWelsh Language Act 1967repealed a section of theWales and Berwick Actand thus "Wales" was no longer part of the legal definition of England. This essentially defined Wales as a separate entity legally (but within the UK), for the first time since before theLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542which defined Wales as a part of the Kingdom of England. TheWelsh Language Act 1967also expanded areas where use of Welsh was permitted, including in some legal situations.^[103][104]

In areferendum in 1979, Wales voted against the creation of a Welsh assembly with an 80 per cent majority. In 1997, asecond referendumon the same issue secured a very narrow majority (50.3 per cent).^[105]TheNational Assembly for Wales(Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was set up in 1999 (under theGovernment of Wales Act 1998) with the power to determine how Wales's central government budget is spent and administered, although the UK Parliament reserved the right to set limits on its powers.^[105]

The Government of Wales Act 2006 (c 32) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that reformed theNational Assembly for Walesand allows further powers to be granted to it more easily. The Act creates a system of government with a separate executive drawn from and accountable to the legislature.^[106]Following a successful referendum in 2011 on extending the law making powers of the National Assembly it is now able to make laws, known as Acts of the Assembly, on all matters in devolved subject areas, without needing the UK Parliament's agreement.^[106]

In the2016 referendum, Wales voted in support of leaving the European Union, although demographic differences became evident. According toDanny Dorling, professor of geography at Oxford University, votes for Leave may have been boosted by the large proportion (21 per cent) of retired English people living in Wales.^[107]

After theSenedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020, the National Assembly was renamed "Senedd Cymru" in Welsh and the "Welsh Parliament" in English, which was seen as a better reflection of the body's expanded legislative powers.^[108]

TheWelsh language(Welsh:Cymraeg) is anIndo-European languageof theCeltic family;^[109]the most closely related languages areCornishandBreton. Most linguists believe that the Celtic languages arrived in Britain around 600 BCE.^[110]TheBrythonic languagesceased to be spoken in England and were replaced by the English language, aGermanic languagewhich arrived in Wales around the end of the eighth century due to the defeat of theKingdom of Powys.^[111]

TheBible translations into Welshand theProtestant Reformation, which encouraged use of thevernacularin religious services, helped the language survive after Welsh elites abandoned it in favour of English in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.^[112]

Successive Welsh Language Acts, in 1942,1967and1993, improved the legal status of Welsh.^[113]TheWelsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011modernised the 1993 Welsh Language Act and gave Welsh an official status in Wales for the first time, a major landmark for the language. The Measure also created the post ofWelsh Language Commissioner, replacing the Welsh Language Board.^[114]Following the referendum in 2011, the Official Languages Act became the first Welsh law to be created in 600 years, according to the First Minister at the time,Carwyn Jones. This law was passed by Welsh Assembly members (AMs) only and made Welsh an official language of the National Assembly.^[115]

Starting in the 1960s, manyroad signshave been replaced by bilingual versions.^[116]Various public and private sector bodies have adopted bilingualism to a varying degree and (since 2011) Welsh is the only official (de jure) language in any part of Great Britain.^[117]

Wales is a country that is part of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom.^[14]ISO 3166-2:GBformerly defined Wales as a principality, with England and Scotland defined as countries and Northern Ireland as a province.^[118]However, this definition was raised in the Welsh Assembly in 2010 and the thenCounsel General for Wales,John Griffiths, stated, 'Principality is a misnomer and that Wales should properly be referred to as a country.'^[119]In 2011, ISO 3166-2:GB was updated and the term 'principality' was replaced with 'country'.^[118]UK Government toponymic guidelines state that, 'though there is a Prince of Wales, this role is deemed to be titular rather than exerting executive authority, and therefore Wales is described as a country rather than a principality.'^[120]

In theHouse of Commons– the 650-memberlower houseof the UK Parliament – there are 32members of Parliament(MPs) whorepresent Welsh constituencies. At the2024 general election, 27LabourandLabour Co-opMPs were elected, along with 4Plaid CymruMPs and 1Liberal DemocratMP from Wales.^[121][122]TheWales Officeis a department of the UK government responsible for Wales, whose minister, theSecretary of State for Wales(Welsh secretary), sits in theUK cabinet.^[123]

Wales has adevolved,unicamerallegislature known as theSenedd(Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament) which holds devolved powers from the UK Parliament via a reserved powers model.^[124]

For the purposes oflocal government, Wales has been divided into 22 council areas since 1996. These "principal areas"^[125]are responsible for the provision of all local government services.^[126]

Followingdevolutionin 1997, theGovernment of Wales Act 1998created a Welsh devolved assembly, theNational Assembly for Wales, with the power to determine how Wales's central government budget is spent and administered.^[127]Eight years later, theGovernment of Wales Act 2006reformed theNational Assembly for Walesand allowed further powers to be granted to it more easily. The Act also created a system of government with a separate executive, the Welsh Government, drawn from and accountable to the legislature, the National Assembly. Following a successful referendum in 2011, the National Assembly was empowered to make laws, known as Acts of the Assembly, on all matters in devolved subject areas, without requiring the UK Parliament's approval of legislative competence. It also gained powers to raise taxes.^{[128]: 33–34}In May 2020, the National Assembly was renamed "Senedd Cymru" or "the Welsh Parliament", commonly known as the Senedd in both English and Welsh.^[108]

Devolved areas of responsibility include agriculture, economic development, education, health, housing, local government, social services, tourism, transport and the Welsh language.^[129]The Welsh Government also promotes Welsh interests abroad.^[130]

By tradition, Welsh Law was compiled during an assembly held atWhitlandaround 930 byHywel Dda, king of most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950. The 'law of Hywel Dda' (Welsh:Cyfraith Hywel), as it became known, codified the previously existingfolk laws and legal customsthat had evolved in Wales over centuries. Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compensation for a crime to the victim, or the victim's kin, rather than punishment by the ruler.^[131]Other than in theMarches, whereMarch lawwas imposed by the Marcher Lords, Welsh Law remained in force in Wales until theStatute of Rhuddlanin 1284.Edward I of Englandannexed thePrincipality of Walesfollowing the death ofLlywelyn ap Gruffudd, and Welsh Law was replaced for criminal cases under the Statute. Marcher Law and Welsh Law (for civil cases) remained in force untilHenry VIII of Englandannexed the whole of Wales under theLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542(often referred to as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543), after which English law applied to the whole of Wales.^[132][133]TheWales and Berwick Act 1746provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales (and the Anglo-Scottish border town ofBerwick) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise; this Act was repealed with regard to Wales in 1967. English law has been the legal system ofEngland and Walessince 1536.^[134]

English law is regarded as acommon lawsystem, with no majorcodificationof the law and legalprecedentsare binding as opposed to persuasive. The court system is headed by theSupreme Court of the United Kingdomwhich is the highest court of appeal in the land for criminal and civil cases. TheSenior Courts of England and Walesis the highestcourt of first instanceas well as anappellate court. The three divisions are theCourt of Appeal, theHigh Court of Justice, and theCrown Court. Minor cases are heard bymagistrates' courtsor theCounty Court. In 2007 the Wales and Cheshire Region (known as the Wales and Cheshire Circuit before 2005) came to an end when Cheshire was attached to the North-Western England Region. From that point, Wales became a legal unit in its own right, although it remains part of the singlejurisdictionofEngland and Wales.^[135]

TheSeneddhas the authority to draft and approve laws outside of theUK Parliamentarysystem to meet the specific needs of Wales. Under powers approved by areferendumheld in March 2011, it is empowered to pass primary legislation, at the time referred to as an Act of the National Assembly for Wales but now known as anAct of Senedd Cymruin relation to twenty subjects listed in theGovernment of Wales Act 2006such as health and education. Through this primary legislation, theWelsh Governmentcan then also enact more specificsubordinate legislation.^[136]

Wales is served by four regional police forces:Dyfed-Powys Police,Gwent Police,North Wales Police, andSouth Wales Police.^[137]There are fiveprisons in Wales: four in the southern half of the country, andoneinWrexham. Wales has no women's prisons: female inmates are imprisoned in England.^[138]

Wales is a generally mountainous country on the western side of central southern Great Britain.^[139]It is about 170 miles (270 km) north to south.^[140]The oft-quoted "size of Wales" is about 20,779 km²(8,023 sq mi).^[141]Wales is bordered by England to the east and by sea in all other directions: theIrish Seato the north and west,St George's Channeland theCeltic Seato the southwest and theBristol Channelto the south.^[142][143]Wales has about 1,680 miles (2,700 km) of coastline (along the mean high water mark), including the mainland, Anglesey and Holyhead.^[144]Over 50 islandslie off the Welsh mainland, the largest beingAnglesey, in the north-west.^[145]

Much of Wales's diverse landscape is mountainous, particularly in the north and central regions. The mountains were shaped during the last ice age, theDevensian glaciation. The highest mountains in Wales are inSnowdonia(Eryri), of which five are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The highest of these isSnowdon(Yr Wyddfa), at 1,085 m (3,560 ft).^[146][147]The 14 Welsh mountains, or 15 if includingCarnedd Gwenllian– often discounted because of its lowtopographic prominence– over 3,000 feet (910 metres) high are known collectively as theWelsh 3000sand are located in a small area in the north-west.^[148]The highest outside the 3000s isAran Fawddwy, at 905 metres (2,969 feet), in the south of Snowdonia.^[149]TheBrecon Beacons(Bannau Brycheiniog) are in the south (highest pointPen y Fan, at 886 metres (2,907 feet)),^[150]and are joined by theCambrian MountainsinMid Wales(highest pointPumlumon, at 752 metres (2,467 feet)).^[151]

Wales hasthree national parks: Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons, andPembrokeshire Coast(Arfordir Penfro). It hasfive Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: Anglesey, theClwydian Range and Dee Valley, theGower Peninsula, theLlŷn Peninsula, and theWye Valley.^[152]The Gower Peninsula was the first area in the United Kingdom to be designated as anArea of Outstanding Natural Beauty, in 1956. As of 2019, thecoastline of Waleshad 40Blue Flag beaches, three Blue Flag marinas and one Blue Flag boat operator.^[153]Despite its heritage and award-winning beaches, the south and west coasts of Wales, along with the Irish and Cornish coasts, are frequently blasted by Atlanticwesterlies/south-westerlies that, over the years, have sunk and wrecked many vessels. In 1859 over 110 ships were destroyed off the coast of Wales in a hurricane that saw more than 800 lives lost across Britain.^[154]The greatest single loss occurred with the sinking of theRoyal Charteroff Anglesey in which 459 people died.^[155]The 19th century saw over 100 vessels lost with an average loss of 78 sailors per year.^[156]Wartime action caused losses near Holyhead,Milford Havenand Swansea.^[156]Because of offshore rocks and unlit islands, Anglesey and Pembrokeshire are still notorious for shipwrecks, most notably theSea Empressoil spillin 1996.^[157]

The first border between Wales and England was zonal, apart from around the River Wye, which was the first accepted boundary.^[158]Offa's Dyke was supposed to form an early distinct line but this was thwarted by Gruffudd ap Llewellyn, who reclaimed swathes of land beyond the dyke.^[158]The Act of Union of 1536 formed a linear border stretching from the mouth of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye.^[158]Even after the Act of Union, many of the borders remained vague and moveable until the Welsh Sunday Closing act of 1881, which forced local businesses to decide which country they fell within to accept either the Welsh or English law.^[158]

The earliest geological period of thePalaeozoicera, theCambrian, takes its name from theCambrian Mountains, where geologists first identified Cambrian remnants.^[159][160]In the mid-19th century,Roderick MurchisonandAdam Sedgwickused their studies of Welsh geology to establish certain principles ofstratigraphyandpalaeontology. The next two periods of the Palaeozoic era, theOrdovicianandSilurian, were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this area.^[161][162]

Wales
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D 159 7 1 114 7 1 119 9 2 86 11 3 81 15 6 86 17 9 78 19 11 106 19 11 124 16 9 153 13 7 157 9 4 173 7 2 █Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █Precipitation totals in mm Source:Met Office
Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D 6.2 44 34 4.5 44 34 4.7 47 36 3.4 52 38 3.2 58 43 3.4 62 47 3.1 66 52 4.2 66 51 4.9 61 48 6 55 44 6.2 49 39 6.8 45 36 █Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █Precipitation totals in inches

Wales lies within thenorth temperate zone. It has a changeable,maritime climateand is one of the wettest countries in Europe.^[164][165]Welsh weather is often cloudy, wet and windy, with warm summers and mild winters.^[164][166]

• Highest maximum temperature: 37.1 °C (99 °F) atHawarden, Flintshire on 18 July 2022.^[167]
• Lowest minimum temperature: −23.3 °C (−10 °F) atRhayader, Radnorshire (nowPowys) on 21 January 1940.^[168]
• Maximum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 354.3 hours atDale Fort, Pembrokeshire in July 1955.^[169]
• Minimum number of hours of sunshine in a month: 2.7 hours at Llwynon,Brecknockshirein January 1962.^[169]
• Maximum rainfall in a day (0900 UTC − 0900 UTC): 211 millimetres (8.3 in) atRhondda, Glamorgan, on 11 November 1929.^[170]
• Wettest spot – an average of 4,473 millimetres (176 in) rain a year atCrib Gochin Snowdonia, Gwynedd (making it also the wettest spot in the United Kingdom).^[171]

Wales's wildlife is typical of Britain with several distinctions. Because of its long coastline, Wales hosts a variety of seabirds. The coasts and surrounding islands are home to colonies ofgannets,Manx shearwater,puffins,kittiwakes,shagsandrazorbills. In comparison, with 60 per cent of Wales above the 150m contour, the country also supports a variety of upland-habitat birds, includingravenandring ouzel.^[172][173]Birds of preyinclude themerlin,hen harrierand thered kite, a national symbol of Welsh wildlife.^[174]In total, more than 200 different species of bird have been seen at theRSPBreserve atConwy, including seasonal visitors.^[175]Larger mammals, including brown bears, wolves and wildcats, died out during the Norman period. Today, mammals include shrews, voles, badgers, otters, stoats, weasels, hedgehogs and fifteen species of bat. Two species of small rodent, theyellow-necked mouseand thedormouse, are of special Welsh note being found at the historically undisturbed border area.^[176]Thepine marten, which has been sighted occasionally, has been reintroduced in parts of Wales since 2015, having previously not been officially recorded since the 1950s.^[177]Thepolecatwas nearly driven to extinction in Britain, but hung on in Wales and is now rapidly spreading.Feral goatscan be found in Snowdonia.^[178]In March 2021,Natural Resources Wales(NRW) granted a licence to release up to sixbeaversin theDyfi Valley, the first official beaver release in Wales.^[179]

Believed to be home to some of Wales's rarest land invertebrates, some 2,500 disused coal tips are the subject of study by the Welsh Government; the tips are home to a wide variety of other wildlife.^[180]

The waters of south-west Wales of Gower, Pembrokeshire and Cardigan Bay attract marine animals, includingbasking sharks, Atlanticgrey seals, leatherback turtles, dolphins,porpoises, jellyfish, crabs and lobsters. Pembrokeshire and Ceredigion, in particular, are recognised as an area of international importance forbottlenose dolphins, andNew Quayhas the only summer residence of bottlenose dolphins in the whole of the UK. River fish of note includechar, eel,salmon,shad,sparlingandArctic char, while thegwyniadis unique to Wales, found only inBala Lake. Wales is known for its shellfish, includingcockles,limpet,musselsandperiwinkles.Herring,mackerelandhakeare the more common of the country's marine fish.^[181]The north facing high grounds of Snowdonia support arelictpre-glacial flora including the iconic Snowdon lily –Gagea serotina– and otheralpinespecies such asSaxifraga cespitosa,Saxifraga oppositifoliaandSilene acaulis. Wales has a number of plant species not found elsewhere in the UK, including the spotted rock-roseTuberaria guttataon Anglesey andDraba aizoideson the Gower.^[182]

Over the last 250 years, Wales has been transformed from apredominantly agricultural countryto an industrial, and then to apost-industrial economy.^[183]In the 1950s, Wales's GDP was twice as big as Ireland's; by the 2020s, Ireland's economy was four times that of Wales. Since the Second World War, theservice sectorhas come to account for the majority of jobs, a feature typifying most advanced economies.^[184]in 2018, according to OECD and Eurostat data, gross domestic product (GDP) in Wales was £75 billion, an increase of 3.3 per cent from 2017. GDP per head in Wales in 2018 was £23,866, an increase of 2.9 per cent on 2017. This compares to Italy's GDP/capita of £25,000, Spain £22,000, Slovenia £20,000 and New Zealand £30,000.^[185][186]In the three months to December 2017, 72.7 per cent of working-age adultswere employed, compared to 75.2 per cent across the UK as a whole.^[187]For the 2018–19 fiscal year, theWelsh fiscal deficitaccounts for 19.4 per cent of Wales's estimated GDP.^[188]

In 2019, Wales was a net exporter of electricity. It produced 27.9 TWh of electricity while only consuming 14.7 TWh.^[189]In 2021, the Welsh government said that more than half the country's energy needs were being met by renewable sources, 2 per cent of which was from 363hydropowerprojects.^[190]

By UK law, Wales contributes to items that do not directly benefit Wales e.g. over £5 billion forHS2"which will damage the Welsh economy by £200m pa", according to the UK and Welsh Government's transport adviser Mark Barry. Wales also pays more in military costs than most similar-sized countries e.g. Wales pays twice the amount Ireland spends on the military.^[191]The UK government spends £1.75bn per year on the military in Wales, which is almost as much as Wales spends on education every year (£1.8 billion in 2018/19) and five times as much as the total amount spent on the police in Wales (£365 million).^[192]

From the middle of the 19th century until the post-war era, the mining and export of coal was the dominant industry. At its peak of production in 1913, nearly 233,000 men and women were employed in theSouth Wales coalfield, mining 56 million tons of coal.^[193]Cardiff was once the largest coal-exporting port in the world and, for a few years before the First World War, handled a greater tonnage of cargo than either London or Liverpool.^[194]In the 1920s, over 40 per cent of the male Welsh population worked inheavy industry.^[195]According toPhil Williams, theGreat Depression"devastated Wales", north and south, because of its "overwhelming dependence on coal and steel".^[195]From the mid-1970s, the Welsh economy faced massive restructuring with large numbers of jobs in heavy industry disappearing and being replaced eventually by new ones inlight industryand in services. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Wales was successful in attracting an above average share offoreign direct investmentin the UK.^[196]Much of the new industry was essentially of a "branch (or "screwdriver") factory" type where a manufacturing plant or call centre is in Wales but the most highly-paid jobs in the company are elsewhere.^[197][198]

Poor-quality soil in much of Wales is unsuitable for crop-growing, so livestock farming has been the focus of farming. About 78 per cent of the land surface is used for agriculture.^[199]The Welsh landscape, with its three national parks andBlue Flag beaches, attractslarge numbers of tourists, who bolster the economy of rural areas.^[200]Wales, like Northern Ireland, has relatively few highvalue-addedemployment in sectors such as finance and research and development, attributable in part to a comparative lack of "economic mass" (i.e. population) – Wales lacks a large metropolitan centre.^[198]The lack of high value-added employment is reflected in lower economic output per head relative to other regions of the UK: in 2002 it stood at 90 per cent of the EU25 average and around 80 per cent of the UK average.^[198]In June 2008, Wales made history by becoming the first nation to be awardedFairtrade status.^[201]

Thepound sterlingis the currency used in Wales. Numerous Welsh banks issued their own banknotes in the 19th century: the last bank to do so closed in 1908. Since then theBank of Englandhas had a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in Wales.^[202]TheCommercial Bank of Wales, established in Cardiff bySir Julian Hodgein 1971, was taken over by theBank of Scotlandin 1988 and absorbed into its parent company in 2002.^[203]TheRoyal Mint, which issues thecoinagecirculating through the whole of the UK, has been based at a single site inLlantrisantsince 1980.^[204]Sincedecimalisation, in 1971, at least one of the coins in circulation emphasises Wales such as the 1995 and 2000 one pound coin (above). As at 2012, the last designs devoted to Wales saw production in 2008.^[205]

During 2020, and well into 2021, the restrictions and lockdowns necessitated by theCOVID-19 pandemicaffected all sectors of the economy and "tourism and hospitality suffered notable losses from the pandemic" across the UK.^[206]As of 6 April 2021, visitors from "red list" countries were still not allowed to enter unless they were UK residents. Restrictions will "likely be in place until the summer", one report predicted, with June being the most likely time for tourism from other countries to begin a rebound.^[207]On 12 April 2021, many tourist facilities were still closed in Wales but non-essential travel between Wales and England was finally permitted. Wales also allowed non-essential retail stores to open.^[208]

• TheM4 motorwayrunning from West London to South Wales linksNewport,CardiffandSwansea. Responsibility for the section of the motorway within Wales, from theSecond Severn CrossingtoPont Abrahamservices, sits with the Welsh Government.^[209]
• TheA55 expresswayhas a similar role along the North Wales coast, connectingHolyheadandBangorwith Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to northwest England, principallyChester.^[210]
• The main north-south Wales link is theA470, which runs from Cardiff toLlandudno.^[211]

Rail transport in Walesincludes theWales & Borders franchise, which is overseen by the Welsh Government with most passenger services operated byTransport for Wales Rail.^[212]The Cardiff region has its ownurban rail network.Beeching cutsin the 1960s mean that most of the remaining network is geared toward east-west travel connecting with theIrish Seaports for ferries to Ireland.^[213]Services between north and south Wales operate through the English cities ofChesterandHerefordand towns ofShrewsbury,Gobowen for Oswestryand along theWelsh Marches Line, with trains on theHeart of Wales LinefromSwanseatoLlandovery,LlandrindodandKnighton, connecting with theWelsh Marches lineatCraven Arms. Trains in Wales are mainly diesel-powered but theSouth Wales Main Linebranch of theGreat Western Main Lineused by services fromLondon Paddingtonto Cardiff isundergoing electrification, although the programme has experienced significant delays and cost overruns.^[214]ANorth-South railwayhas been suggested to better link North and South Wales.^{[215][216][217]}

Cardiff Airportis the international airport of Wales. Providing links to European, African and North American destinations, it is about 12 miles (19 km) southwest ofCardiff city centre, in the Vale of Glamorgan. Intra-Wales flights used to run between Anglesey (Valley) and Cardiff, and were operated since 2017 byEastern Airways;^[218]as of 2022, those flights are no longer available. Other internal flights operate to northern England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.^[219]Wales has four commercial ferry ports. Regular ferry services to Ireland operate fromHolyhead,Pembroke DockandFishguard. The Swansea toCorkservice was cancelled in 2006, reinstated in March 2010, and withdrawn again in 2012.^[220]

A distinct education system has developed in Wales.^[222]Formal education before the 18th century was the preserve of the elite. The first grammar schools were established in Welsh towns such asRuthin, Brecon and Cowbridge.^[222]One of the first successful schooling systems was started byGriffith Jones, who introduced the circulating schools in the 1730s; these are believed to have taught half the country's population to read.^[223]In the 19th century, with increasing state involvement in education, Wales was forced to adopt an education system that was English in ethos even though the country was predominantlyNonconformist, Welsh-speaking and demographically uneven^{[clarification needed]}because of the economic expansion in the south.^[223]In some schools, to ensure Welsh children spoke English at school, theWelsh Notwas employed as corrective punishment; this was much resented,^[224]although the extent of its use is difficult to determine.^[225]State and local governmental edicts resulted in schooling in the English language which, following the 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales – an event subsequently referred to as theTreachery of the Blue Books(Welsh:Brad y Llyfrau Gleision) – was seen as more academic and worthwhile for children.^[226]

TheUniversity College of Walesopened in Aberystwyth in 1872.CardiffandBangorfollowed, and the three colleges came together in 1893 to form theUniversity of Wales.^[223]TheWelsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889created 95 secondary schools. The Welsh Department for the Board of Education followed in 1907, which gave Wales its first significant educational devolution.^[223]A resurgence in Welsh-language schools in the latter half of the 20th century at nursery and primary level saw attitudes shift towards teaching in the medium of Welsh.^[227]Welsh is a compulsory subject in all of Wales's state schools for pupils aged 5–16 years old.^[228]While there has never been an exclusively Welsh-language college, Welsh-medium higher education is delivered through the individual universities and has since 2011 been supported by theColeg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol(Welsh-language National College) as a delocalised federal institution. In 2021–2022, there were 1,470 maintained schools in Wales.^[229]In 2021–22, the country had 471,131 pupils taught by 25,210 full-time equivalent teachers.^[230][231]

Public healthcare in Wales is provided byNHS Wales(GIG Cymru), throughseven local health boards and three all-Wales trusts. It was originally formed as part of the NHS structure for England and Wales by theNational Health Service Act 1946, but with powers over the NHS in Wales coming under the Secretary of State for Wales in 1969.^[232]Responsibility for NHS Wales passed to the Welsh Assembly under devolution in 1999, and is now the responsibility of theMinister for Health and Social Services.^[233]Historically, Wales was served by smaller 'cottage' hospitals, built as voluntary institutions.^[234]As newer, more expensive, diagnostic techniques and treatments became available, clinical work has been concentrated in newer, larger district hospitals.^[234]In 2006, there were seventeen district hospitals in Wales.^[234]NHS Wales directly employs over 90,000 staff, making it Wales's biggest employer.^[235]The National Survey for Wales in 2021–22 reported that 72 per cent of adults surveyed had good or very good general health, 19 per cent had fair general health and 8 had bad or very bad general health.^[236]The survey recorded that 46 per cent of Welsh adults had a long-standing illness, such as arthritis, asthma, diabetes or heart disease.^[237]The survey also reported that 13 per cent of the adult population weresmokers, 16 per cent admitted drinking alcohol above weekly recommended guidelines, while 56 per cent undertook the recommended 150 minutes of physical activity each week.^[238]According to the survey, 30 per cent of adults in Wales reported to have eaten at least 5 portions of fruit or vegetables the previous day and 36 per cent reported a healthy weight.^[239]

Population of Wales

Year	Pop.	±%
1536	278,000	—
1620	360,000	+29.5%
1770	500,000	+38.9%
1801	587,000	+17.4%
1851	1,163,000	+98.1%
1911	2,421,000	+108.2%
1921	2,656,000	+9.7%
1939	2,487,000	−6.4%
1961	2,644,000	+6.3%
1991	2,811,865	+6.3%
2001	2,910,200	+3.5%
2011	3,063,456	+5.3%
2021	3,107,500	+1.4%
Estimated (pre-1801); census (post-1801)[240] 2001 census[241] 2021 census[242]

The population of Wales doubled from 587,000 in 1801 to 1,163,000 in 1851 and had reached 2,421,000 by 1911. Most of the increase came in the coal mining districts, especiallyGlamorganshire, which grew from 71,000 in 1801 to 232,000 in 1851 and 1,122,000 in 1911.^[243]Part of this increase can be attributed to thedemographic transitionseen in most industrialising countries during theIndustrial Revolution, as death rates dropped and birth rates remained steady. However, there was also large-scale migration into Wales during the Industrial Revolution. The English were the most numerous group, but there were also considerable numbers of Irish and smaller numbers of other ethnic groups,^[244]includingItalians, who migrated to South Wales.^[245]Wales also received immigration from various parts of the BritishCommonwealth of Nationsin the 20th century, andAfrican-CaribbeanandAsiancommunities add to the ethnocultural mix, particularly in urban Wales. Many of these self-identify as Welsh.^[246]

The population in 1972 stood at 2.74 million and remained broadly static for the rest of the decade. However, in the early 1980s, the population fell due to netmigrationout of Wales. Since the 1980s, net migration has generally been inward, and has contributed more topopulation growththannatural change.^[247]The resident population of Wales in 2021 according to thecensuswas 3,107,500 (1,586,600 female and 1,521,000 male), an increase of 1.4 per cent over 2011. A decreased change from the 5 per cent increase between 2001 and 2011.^[248]Wales accounted for 5.2 per cent of thepopulation of England and Walesin 2021.Wales has seven cities: Cardiff, Newport, Swansea, Wrexham,Bangor,St AsaphandSt Davids. (The last two of these havecity status in the United Kingdomdespite their small populations.)^[249]Wrexham, north Wales's largest settlement, became Wales's newest and seventh city in September2022.^[250]

Welsh is an official language in Wales as legislated by the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011.^[252]Both Welsh and English are also official languages of the Senedd.^[253]The proportion of the Welsh population able to speak the Welsh language fell from just under 50 per cent in 1901 to 43.5 per cent in 1911, and continued to fall to a low of 18.9 per cent in 1981.^[254]The results of the 2001 Census showed an increase in the number of Welsh speakers to 21 per cent of the population aged 3 and older, compared with 18.7 per cent in 1991 and 19 per cent in 1981. This compares with a pattern of steady decline indicated by census results during the 20th century.^[255]In the 2011 census it was recorded that the proportion of people able to speak Welsh had dropped from 20.8 per cent to 19 per cent (still higher than 1991). Despite an increase in the overall size of the Welsh population this still meant that the number of Welsh speakers in Wales dropped from 582,000 in 2001 to 562,000 in 2011. However this figure was still much higher than 508,000 or 18.7 per cent of people who said they could speak Welsh in the 1991 census.^[256]

According to the2021 census, the Welsh-speaking population of Wales aged three or older was 17.8 per cent (538,300 people) and nearly three-quarters of the population in Wales said they had no Welsh language skills.^[257]Other estimates suggest that 29.7 per cent (899,500) of people aged three or older in Wales could speak Welsh in June 2022.^[258]

English is spoken by almost all people in Wales and is the main language in most of the country.Code-switchingis common in all parts of Wales and is known by various terms, though none is recognised by professional linguists.^[259]"Wenglish" is the Welsh dialect of the English language. It has been influenced significantly by Welsh grammar and includes words derived from Welsh.^[260]Northern and western Wales retain many areas where Welsh is spoken as a first language by the majority of the population, and English learnt as a second language. Althoughmonoglotismin young children continues, life-long monoglotism in Welsh no longer occurs.^[261]

SincePolandjoined the European Union, Wales has seen a significant increase in Polish immigrants. This has madePolishthe most common main language in Wales after English and Welsh, at 0.7 per cent of the population.^[262]

Forms ofChristianityhave dominated religious life in what is now Wales for more than 1,400 years.^[263][264]The 2021 census recorded that 46.5 per cent had "No religion", more than any single religious affiliation and up from 32.1 per cent in 2011.^[265]The largest religion in Wales is Christianity, with 43.6 per cent of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2021 census.^[265]Thepatron saintof Wales isSaint David(Dewi Sant), withSaint David's Day(Dydd Gŵyl Dewi Sant) celebrated annually on 1 March.^[266]The early 20th century saw a religious revival, the1904–1905 Welsh Revival, which started through the evangelism ofEvan Robertsand brought large numbers of converts, sometimes whole communities, to non-Anglican Christianity.^[267]

TheChurch in Waleswith 56,000 adherents has the largest attendance of the denominations.^[268]It is a province of theAnglican Communion, and was part of the Church of England until disestablishment in 1920 under theWelsh Church Act 1914. The firstIndependent Churchin Wales was founded atLlanvachesin 1638 byWilliam Wroth. ThePresbyterian Church of Waleswas born out of theWelsh Methodist revivalin the 18th century and seceded from theChurch of Englandin 1811.^[269]The second largest attending faith in Wales isRoman Catholic, with an estimated 43,000 adherents.^[268]

Non-Christian religions are small in Wales, making up approximately 2.7 per cent of the population.^[270]Islamis the largest, with 24,000 (0.8 per cent) reported Muslims in the 2011 census.^[270]There are also communities ofHindusandSikhs, mainly in the south Wales cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea, while the largest concentration ofBuddhistsis in the western rural county ofCeredigion.^[271]Judaismwas the first non-Christian faith to be established in Wales since Roman times, though by 2001 the community had declined to approximately 2,000^[272]and as of 2019 only numbers in the hundreds.^[273]

The 2021 census showed that 93.8 per cent of the population of Wales identified as "White", compared to 95.6 per cent in 2011. 90.6 per cent of the population identified as "White: Welsh, English, Scottish, Northern Irish or British" in 2021. The second-highest ethnicity in 2021 was "Asian, Asian Welsh or Asian British" at 2.9 per cent of the population, compared to 2.3 per cent in 2011. 1.6 per cent of the population identified as "Mixed or multiple ethnic groups", compared to 1.0 per cent in 2011; 0.9 per cent of the population identified as "Black, Black Welsh, Black British, Caribbean or African", compared to 0.6 per cent in 2011; and 0.9 per cent identified as "Other ethnic group" compared to 0.5 per cent in 2011. The local authorities with the highest proportions of "high-level" ethnic groups other than "White" were mainly urban areas including Cardiff, Newport and Swansea. 5.3 per cent of households in Wales were multiple ethnic group households, up from 4.2 per cent in 2011.^[274]

In 2021, the first statue of a named, non-fictional woman outdoors was raised for Wales's first black headteacher,Betty Campbell. In 2023,Patti Flynn(a contemporary ofShirley Bassey, both ofTiger Bay, Cardiff) became the first black Welsh woman to be awarded a purple plaque.^[275]

The 2021 census showed that 55.2 per cent identified as "Welsh only" and 8.1 per cent identified as "Welsh and British", giving the combined proportion of 63.3 per cent for people identifying as Welsh.^[276]The Welsh Annual Population Survey showed that the proportion of people who identified as Welsh versus another identity was 62.3 per cent in 2022, compared to 69.2 per cent in 2001.^[277]A 2022 YouGov poll found that 21 per cent considered themselves Welsh not British, 15 per cent more Welsh than British, 24 per cent equally Welsh and British, 7 per cent more British than Welsh, 20 per cent British and not Welsh, and 8 per cent other; a total of 67 per cent thus considered themselves Welsh to some degree.^[278]

Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language, customs, holidays and music. There are fourUNESCO World Heritage Sites in Wales:The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd;Pontcysyllte Aqueductand Canal; theBlaenavon Industrial Landscape; andThe Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales.^[279]

Remnants of native Celticmythologyof the pre-ChristianBritonswas passed down orally by thecynfeirdd(the early poets).^[280]Some of their work survives in latermedieval Welsh manuscripts: theBlack Book of Carmarthenand theBook of Aneirin(both 13th-century); theBook of Taliesinand theWhite Book of Rhydderch(both 14th-century); and theRed Book of Hergest(c. 1400).^[280]Theprosestories from the White and Red Books are known as theMabinogion.^[281]Poems such asCad Goddeu(The Battle of the Trees) and mnemonic list-texts like theWelsh Triadsand theThirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, also contain mythological material.^[282]These texts include the earliest forms of theArthurian legendand the traditional history of post-Roman Britain.^[280]Other sources of Welshfolkloreinclude the 9th-century Latin historical compilationHistoria Britonum(the History of the Britons) andGeoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century LatinchronicleHistoria Regum Britanniae(the History of the Kings of Britain), and later folklore, such asThe Welsh Fairy Bookby W. Jenkyn Thomas.^[283]

Wales has one of the oldest unbroken literary traditions in Europe^[284]going back to the sixth century and includingGeoffrey of MonmouthandGerald of Wales, regarded as among the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages.^[284]The earliest body of Welsh verse, by poetsTaliesinandAneirin, survive not in their original form, but in much-changed, medieval versions.^[284]Welsh poetry and native lore and learning survived through the era of thePoets of the Princes(c. 1100–1280) and then thePoets of the Gentry(c. 1350–1650). The former were professional poets who composed eulogies and elegies to their patrons while the latter favoured thecywyddmetre.^[285]The period produced one of Wales's greatest poets,Dafydd ap Gwilym.^[286]After the Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined.^[285]

Despite the extinction of the professional poet, the integration of the native elite into a wider cultural world did bring other literary benefits.^[287]Renaissance scholars such asWilliam SalesburyandJohn Daviesbroughthumanistideals from English universities.^[287]In 1588William Morganbecame the first person to translate theBible into Welsh.^[287]From the 16th century the proliferation of the 'free-metre' verse became the most important development in Welsh poetry, but from the middle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual metres from England became very popular.^[287]By the 19th century the creation of a Welsh epic, fuelled by the eisteddfod, became an obsession with Welsh-language writers.^[288]The output of this period was prolific in quantity but unequal in quality.^[289]Initially excluded, religious denominations came to dominate the competitions, with bardic themes becoming scriptural and didactic.^[289]

Developments in 19th-century Welsh literature includeLady Charlotte Guest's translation into English of the Mabinogion, one of the most important medieval Welsh prose works of Celtic mythology. 1885 saw the publication ofRhys LewisbyDaniel Owen, credited as the first novel written in the Welsh language. The 20th century saw a move from the verbose Victorian Welsh style, with works such asThomas Gwynn Jones'sYmadawiad Arthur.^[288]The First World War had a profound effect on Welsh literature with a more pessimistic style championed byT. H. Parry-WilliamsandR. Williams Parry.^[288]The industrialisation of south Wales saw a further shift with the likes ofRhydwen Williamswho used the poetry and metre of a bygone rural Wales but in the context of an industrial landscape. The inter-war period is dominated bySaunders Lewis, for his political and reactionary views as much as his plays, poetry and criticism.^[288]

The careers of some 1930s writers continued after World War Two, including those ofGwyn Thomas,Vernon Watkins, andDylan Thomas, whose most famous workUnder Milk Woodwas first broadcast in 1954. Thomas was one of the most notable and popular Welsh writers of the 20th century and one of the most innovative poets of his time.^[290]The attitude of the post-war generation of Welsh writers in English towards Wales differs from the previous generation, with greater sympathy for Welsh nationalism and the Welsh language. The change is linked to the nationalism ofSaunders Lewisand the burning of the Bombing School on theLlŷn Peninsulain 1936.^[291]In poetryR. S. Thomas(1913–2000) was the most important figure throughout the second half of the 20th century. He "did not learn the Welsh language until he was 30 and wrote all his poems in English".^[292]Major writers in the second half of the 20th century includeEmyr Humphreys(1919–2020), who during his long writing career published over twenty novels,^[293]andRaymond Williams(1921–1988).^[294]

Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Waleswas founded byroyal charterin 1907 as the National Museum of Wales. It operates at seven sites:National Museum Cardiff,St Fagans National History Museum,Big Pit National Coal Museum,National Wool Museum,National Slate Museum,National Roman Legion Museum, and theNational Waterfront Museum. Entry to all sites is free.^[295]TheNational Library of Wales, based inAberystwyth, houses important collections of printed works, including theSir John Williams Collectionand theShirburn Castlecollection,^[296]as well as art collections including portraits and photographs,ephemeraandOrdnance Surveymaps.^[296]

Works ofCeltic arthave been found in Wales.^[297]In theEarly Medievalperiod, theCeltic Christianityof Wales was part of theInsular artof theBritish Isles. A number ofilluminated manuscriptsfrom Walessurvive, including the 8th-centuryHereford GospelsandLichfield Gospels. The 11th-centuryRicemarch Psalter(now inDublin) is certainly Welsh, made inSt David's, and shows a late Insular style with unusual Viking influence.^[298]

Some Welsh artists of the 16th–18th centuries tended to leave the country to work, moving to London or Italy.Richard Wilson(1714–1782) is arguably the first major British landscapist; although more notable for his Italian scenes, he painted several Welsh scenes on visits from London. By the late 18th century, the popularity oflandscape artgrew and clients were found in the larger Welsh towns, allowing more Welsh artists to stay in their homeland. Artists from outside Wales were also drawn to paint Welsh scenery, at first because of theCeltic Revival.^[299]

AnAct of Parliamentin 1857 provided for the establishment of a number of art schools throughout the United Kingdom, and theCardiff School of Artopened in 1865. Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work, butBetws-y-Coedbecame a popular centre for artists, and its artists' colony helped to form theRoyal Cambrian Academy of Artin 1881.^[300]The sculptor Sir WilliamGoscombe Johnmade works for Welsh commissions, although he had settled in London.Christopher Williams, whose subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh, was also based in London.Thomas E. Stephens^[301]andAndrew Vicarihad very successful careers as portraitists, based respectively in the United States and France.^[302]

Welsh painters gravitated towards the art capitals of Europe.Augustus Johnand his sisterGwen Johnlived mostly in London and Paris. However, the landscapists SirKyffin WilliamsandPeter Prendergastlived in Wales for most of their lives, while remaining in touch with the wider art world.Ceri Richardswas very engaged in the Welsh art scene as a teacher in Cardiff and even after moving to London; he was a figurative painter in international styles includingSurrealism. Various artists have moved to Wales, includingEric Gill, the London-WelshmanDavid Jones, and the sculptorJonah Jones.The Kardomah Gangwas an intellectual circle in Swansea, centred on the poetDylan Thomasand the poet and artistVernon Watkins, which also included the painterAlfred Janes.^[303]

South Wales had several notablepotteries, one of the first important sites being theEwenny PotteryinBridgend, which began producing earthenware in the 17th century.^[304]In the 18th and 19th centuries, with more scientific methods becoming available, more refined ceramics were produced: this was led by theCambrian Pottery(1764–1870, also known as "Swansea pottery"), and laterNantgarw Potterynear Cardiff, which was in operation from 1813 to 1820 making fineporcelain, and then utilitarian pottery from 1833 until 1920.^[304]Portmeirion Pottery, founded in 1960 bySusan Williams-Ellis(daughter ofClough Williams-Ellis, creator of the Italianate village ofPortmeirion,Gwynedd) is based inStoke-on-Trent, England.^[305]

Wales is regarded as a modernCeltic nationwhich contributes to its national identity,^[31][306]with Welsh artists regularly appearing atCeltic festivals.^[307]Thered dragonis the principal symbol of national identity and pride, personifying the fearlessness of the Welsh nation.^[308]The dragon is first referenced in literature as a symbol of the people in theHistoria Brittonum.Vortigern(Welsh:Gwrtheyrn),King of the Celtic Britons, is interrupted while attempting to build a fort at Dinas Emrys. He is told by Ambrosius^[f]to dig up two dragons beneath the castle. He discovers a red dragon representing theCeltic Britons, and a white dragon representing Anglo-Saxons. Ambrosius prophesies that the Celtic Britons will reclaim the island and push the Anglo-Saxons back to the sea.^[310]

As an emblem, the red dragon of Wales has been used since the reign ofCadwaladr,King of Gwyneddfrom around 655 AD, and appears prominently on the nationalflag of Wales, which became an official flag in 1959.^[311]The banner ofOwain Glyndŵris associated with Welsh nationhood; it was carried into battle by Welsh forces duringGlyndŵr's battlesagainst the English, and includes four lions on red and gold.^[312]The standard is similar to the arms ofLlywelyn ap Gruffudd(Llywelyn the Last), the last Prince of Wales before the conquest of Wales byEdward I of England. The design may also be influenced by the arms of Glyndŵr's parents, both of whom had lions in their arms.Owain Glyndŵr Dayis celebrated on 16 September in Wales and there have been calls to make it a national bank holiday.^{[313][314][315]}ThePrince of Wales's feathersis also used in Wales: it consists of three white feathers emerging from a gold coronet, and the German mottoIch dien(I serve). Several Welsh representative teams, includingthe Welsh rugby union, and Welsh regiments in theBritish Army, including theRoyal Welsh, use the badge or a stylised version of it.^{[316][317][g]}

On 1 March, Welsh people celebrateSaint David's Day, commemorating the death of the country's patron saint in 589.^[319]It is not a recognisedbank holidayalthough there have been calls to make it so.^{[320][321][322]}The day is celebrated by schools and cultural societies across Wales, and customs include the wearing of aleekor adaffodil, which are two national emblems of Wales. Children also wear the national costume.^[323]The origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century, while the daffodil became popular in the 19th century, encouraged byDavid Lloyd George.^[324]This is attributed to confusion (or association) between the Welsh for leeks,cennin, and that for daffodils,cennin Pedror St. Peter's leeks.^[139]A report in 1916 gave preference to the leek, which has appeared on British pound coins.^[324]Other Welsh festivals includeMabsantwhen parishes would celebrate the patron saint of their local church, although this is now rarely observed,^[325]and a more modern celebration,Dydd Santes Dwynwen(St Dwynwen's Day), observed on 25 January in a similar way to St Valentine's Day.^[326]

"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" (English:Land of My Fathers)is thede facto, national anthem of Wales and is played at events such as football or rugby matches involving the Wales national team, as well as the opening of the Senedd and other official occasions.^[327]"Cymru am byth" ("Wales forever") is a popular Welsh motto.^[328]Another Welsh motto "YDdraig GochDdyry Cychwyn" ("thered dragoninspires action") has been used on theRoyal Badge of Waleswhen it was created in 1953.^[329]

More than 50national governing bodiesregulate and organise their sports in Wales.^[330]Most of those involved in competitive sports select, organise and manage individuals or teams to represent their country at international events or fixtures against other countries. Wales is represented at major world sporting events such as theFIFA World Cup,Rugby World Cup,Rugby League World Cupand theCommonwealth Games. At theOlympic Games, Welsh athletes compete alongside those of Scotland, England and Northern Ireland as part of aGreat Britainteam. Wales has hosted several international sporting events.^[331]These include the1958 Commonwealth Games,^[332]the1999 Rugby World Cup, the2010 Ryder Cupand the2017 UEFA Champions League Final.^[331][333]

Although football has traditionally been the more popular sport inNorth Wales,rugby unionis seen as a symbol ofWelsh identityand an expression of national consciousness.^[334]TheWales national rugby union teamtakes part in the annualSix Nations Championshipand has also competed in everyRugby World Cup, hosting the tournament in1999. The five professional sides that replaced the traditional club sides in major competitions in 2003 were replaced in 2004 by the four regions:Cardiff Blues,Dragons,OspreysandScarlets.^[335]The Welsh regional teams play in theUnited Rugby Championship,^[336]theHeineken Champions Cupif they qualify^[337]and theEuropean Rugby Challenge Cup, again dependent on qualification.^[338]Rugby league in Walesdates back to 1907. A professionalWelsh Leagueexisted from 1908 to 1910.^[339]

Wales has hadits own footballleague, theWelsh Premier League, since 1992.^[340]For historical reasons, five Welsh clubs play in theEnglish football league system:Cardiff City,Swansea City,Newport County,Wrexham, andMerthyr Town.^[341]The country has produced a considerable number offootballerswho have played at international level.^[342]AtUEFA Euro 2016, theWales national teamachieved their best ever finish, reaching the semi-finals.^[343]

In internationalcricket, Wales and England field a single representative team, administered by theEngland and Wales Cricket Board(ECB), called theEngland cricket team, or simply 'England'.^[344]Occasionally, a separateWales teamplay limited-overs competitions.Glamorgan County Cricket Clubis the only Welsh participant in the England and Wales County Championship.^[345]Wales has produced notable participants of individual sports includingsnooker,^[346]track and field,^[347]cycling,^[348][349]andboxing.^[350][351]

Wales became the UK's firstdigital televisionnation in 2010.^[352]BBC Cymru Walesis the national broadcaster,^[353]producing both television and radio programmes in Welsh and English.^[354]It has also produced programmes such asLife on Mars,Doctor WhoandTorchwoodfor BBC's network audience across the United Kingdom.^[353][355]ITV, the UK's main commercial broadcaster, has a Welsh-orientated service brandedITV Cymru Wales.^[356]S4Cbegan broadcasting in 1982. Its output was mostly in Welsh at peak hours, but shared English-language content withChannel 4at other times. Since thedigital switchoverthe channel has broadcast exclusively in Welsh.^[357]BBC Radio Cymruis the BBC's Welsh-language radio service, which broadcasts throughout Wales.^[353]A number of independent radio stations broadcast in the Welsh regions, predominantly in English. In 2006, several regional radio stations broadcast in Welsh: output ranged from two two-minute news bulletins each weekday (Radio Maldwyn) to over 14 hours of Welsh-language programmes weekly (Swansea Sound) to essentially bilingual stations such asHeart CymruandRadio Ceredigion.^[358]

Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales are national newspapers available throughout Britain. TheWestern Mailis Wales's only print national daily newspaper.^[359]Wales-based regional daily newspapers include theDaily Post(which covers North Wales), theSouth Wales Evening Post(Swansea), theSouth Wales Echo(Cardiff), and theSouth Wales Argus(Newport).^[359]Y Cymrois a Welsh-language newspaper, published weekly.^[360]Wales on Sundayis the only Welsh Sunday newspaper that covers the whole of Wales.^[361]TheBooks Council of Walesis the Welsh-Government-funded body tasked with promoting Welsh literature in Welsh and English.^[362]The BCW provides publishing grants for qualifying English- and Welsh-language publications.^[363]Around 650 books are published each year, by some of the dozens of Welsh publishers.^[364][365]Wales's main publishing houses includeGomer Press,Gwasg Carreg Gwalch,Honno, theUniversity of Wales PressandY Lolfa.^[364]Journals with a Welsh focus includeCambria(a Welsh affairs magazine published bi-monthly in English),^[366]Planet,andPoetry Wales.^[367]Welsh-language magazines include the current affairs titlesGolwg("View"), published weekly, andBarn("Opinion"), published monthly.^[360]Y Wawr("The Dawn") is published quarterly byMerched y Wawr, the national organisation for women.^[360]Y Traethodydd("The Essayist"), a quarterly publication by thePresbyterian Church of Wales, first appeared in 1845 and is the oldest Welsh publication still in print.^[360]

Traditional Welsh dishes includelaverbread(made fromPorphyra umbilicalis, an edibleseaweed),bara brith(fruit bread),cawl(a lamb stew),cawl cennin(leek soup), andWelsh cakes.^[368]Cocklesare sometimes served as a traditional breakfast with bacon and laverbread.^[369]Although Wales has its own traditional food and has absorbed much of the cuisine of England, Welsh diets now owe more to the countries ofIndia,Chinaand theUnited States.Chicken tikka masalais the country's favourite dish, while hamburgers and Chinese food outsellfish and chipsas takeaways.^[370]

Wales, "the land of song", is notable for its solo artists, itsmale voice choirsand its harpists.^[371]The annualNational Eisteddfodis the country's main performance festival. TheLlangollenInternational Eisteddfodprovides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform. The Welsh Folk Song Society publishes collections of historical songs and tunes.^[372]Traditional instruments of Wales include thetelyn deires(triple harp), fiddle,crwth(bowed lyre) and thepibgorn(hornpipe).^[373]Male voice choirs emerged in the 19th century, formed as the tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs, and embraced the popular secular hymns of the day.^[374]Welsh congregations and choirs were known for singing in a rousing four-voice style, becoming characteristic of the country.^[375]Many of the historic choirs survive in modern Wales, singing a mixture of traditional and popular songs.^[374]

TheBBC National Orchestra of Walesperforms in Wales and internationally. TheWelsh National Operais based at theWales Millennium CentreinCardiff Bay, while theNational Youth Orchestra of Waleswas the first of its type in the world.^[376]Wales has a tradition of producing notable singers in both the classical and pop arenas,^[377]as well as some popular bands.^{[378][379][380]}The Welshfolk musicscene has enjoyed a resurgence in the 21st century.^[381]

The earliest surviving Welsh plays are two medievalmiracle plays,Y Tri Brenin o Gwlen("The three Kings from Cologne") andY Dioddefaint a'r Atgyfodiad("The Passion and the Resurrection").^[382]A recognised Welsh tradition of theatre emerged during the 18th century, in the form of aninterlude, a metrical play performed at fairs and markets.^[383]Drama in the early 20th century thrived, but the country established neither a Welsh National Theatre nor a national ballet company.^[384]After the Second World War, the substantial number of amateur theatre companies reduced by two-thirds.^[385]Competition from television in the mid-20th century led to greater professionalism in the theatre.^[385]Plays byEmlyn WilliamsandAlun Owenand others were staged, while Welsh actors, includingRichard BurtonandAnthony Hopkins, were establishing international reputations.^{[385][386][387]}Wales has also produced some well-known comedians.^[388]

Traditional dances include Welshfolk dancingandclog dancing. The first mention of dancing in Wales is in a 12th-century account byGiraldus Cambrensis, but by the 19th century traditional dance had all but died out due to religious opposition.^[384]In the 20th century a revival was led byLois Blake(1890–1974).^[384]Clog dancing was preserved and developed by Hywel Wood (1882–1967) and others who perpetuated the art on local and national stages.^[389]The Welsh Folk Dance Society was founded in 1949.^[389]Contemporary dancegrew out of Cardiff in the 1970s.^[389]TheNational Dance Company Wales, formed in 1983, is now resident at the Wales Millennium Centre.^[390]

• List of movements in Wales
• Outline of Wales

Citations

Sources

• Census 2001,200 Years of the Census in ... Wales(2001)
• Davies, John(1994).A History of Wales. London: Penguin.ISBN978-0-14-014581-6.
• Davies, John;Jenkins, Nigel; Baines, Menna;Lynch, Peredur I., eds. (2008).The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.ISBN978-0-7083-1953-6.

• Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament
• BBC Wales
• Geographic data related toWalesatOpenStreetMap
• VisitWales.com. The official international guide to places to stay and things to do in Wales.
• Gathering the Jewels – Welsh Heritage and Culture
• Photographs of Waleson Geograph Britain and Ireland
• Further historical information and sources at GENUKI

52°18′N3°48′W / 52.3°N 3.8°W /52.3; -3.8