London

London
Capital city
River Thamesand Tower Bridgewith The Shardand Southwark(left), and Tower of Londonand City of London(right) London Eye Nelson's Column St Paul's Piccadilly Circus Canary Wharf Palace of Westminsterwith Big Ben(right)
London Location within the United Kingdom Show map of the United Kingdom London Location within Europe Show map of Europe
Coordinates:51°30′26″N0°7′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.12750°W /51.50722; -0.12750
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Country	England
Region	London
Ceremonialcounties	Greater London City of London
Settled byRomans	AD 47; 1977 years ago(47),asLondinium[1]
Administrative HQ	City Hall, Newham
Local government	32London boroughsand theCity of London
Government
• Type	Executive mayoraltyanddeliberative assembly
• Body	Greater London Authority
•Mayor	Sadiq Khan(L)
•London Assembly	14 constituencies
•UK Parliament	74 constituencies
Area [2]
• Total[a]	607 sq mi (1,572 km2)
• Urban	671 sq mi (1,738 km2)
• Metro	3,236 sq mi (8,382 km2)
Population (2022) [2]
• Total[a]	8,866,180
• Rank	1stin the UK 3rdin Europe
• Density	14,600/sq mi (5,640/km2)
•Urban (2011) [3]	9,787,426
•Metro [b] (2024) [4]	14,900,000
Demonyms	Londoner
Ethnicity(2021) [5]
•Ethnic groups	List 53.8%White 20.7%Asian 13.5%Black 6.3%other 5.7%Mixed
Religion(2021) [5]
•Religion	List 40.7%Christianity 27.1%no religion 15.0%Islam 5.1%Hinduism 1.7%Judaism 1.6%Sikhism 0.9%Buddhism 1.0%other 7.0% not stated
Time zone	UTC+0(GMT)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+1(BST)
Postcode areas	22 areas E,EC,N,NW,SE,SW,W,WC,BR,CM,CR,DA,EN,HA,IG,KT,RM,SM,UB,WD,TN,TW
Dialling codes	020 01689 01708 01895
GSS code	E12000007 (region) E61000001 (GLA)
GeoTLD	.london
Website	london.gov.uk

London(/ˈlʌndən/LUN-dən)^[6]is thecapitalandlargest city^[c]of bothEnglandand theUnited Kingdom, with a population of 8,866,180 in 2022.^[2]Thewider metropolitan areais the largest inWestern Europe, with a population of 14.9 million.^[7]London stands on theRiver Thamesin southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km)estuarydown to theNorth Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years.^[8]Its ancient core andfinancial centre, theCity of London, was founded by theRomansasLondiniumand has retained its medieval boundaries.^[d][9]TheCity of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host ofthe national governmentandparliament. London grew rapidlyin the 19th century, becoming the world'slargest city at the time. Since the 19th century,^[10][11]the name "London" has referred to themetropolisaround the City of London, historically split between thecountiesofMiddlesex,Essex,Surrey,Kent, andHertfordshire,^[12]which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area ofGreater London, governed by33 local authoritiesand theGreater London Authority.^[e][13]

As one of the world's majorglobal cities,^[14][15]London exerts a strong influence on worldart, entertainment,fashion, commerce, finance,education,healthcare,media, science, technology,tourism,transport, and communications.^[16][17]Despite a post-Brexitexodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,^[18][19]London remains Europe's most economically powerful city^[20]andone of the world's major financial centres. It hosts Europe's largest concentration ofhigher education institutions,^[21]some of which are the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world:Imperial College Londoninnaturalandapplied sciences, theLondon School of Economicsinsocial sciences, and the comprehensiveUniversity College London.^[22][23]It is themost visited cityin Europe and has the world'sbusiest city airport system.^[24]TheLondon Undergroundis the world's oldestrapid transitsystem.^[25]

London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.^[26]The 2023 population of Greater London of just under 10 million^[27]made it Europe'sthird-most populous city,^[28]accounting for 13.4% of the United Kingdom's population^[29]and over 16% of England's population. TheGreater London Built-up Areais thefourth-most populousin Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011.^[30][31]The London metropolitan area is thethird-most populousin Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants as of 2016, making London amegacity.^[f][32][33]

FourWorld Heritage Sitesare located in London:Kew Gardens; theTower of London; the site featuring thePalace of Westminster,Church of St. Margaret, andWestminster Abbey; and the historic settlement inGreenwichwhere theRoyal Observatorydefines theprime meridian(0°longitude) andGreenwich Mean Time.^[34]Other landmarks includeBuckingham Palace, theLondon Eye,Piccadilly Circus,St Paul's Cathedral,Tower Bridge, andTrafalgar Square. The city has the mostmuseums, art galleries, libraries, and cultural venues in the UK, including theBritish Museum,National Gallery,Natural History Museum,Tate Modern,British Library, and numerousWest Endtheatres.^[35]Importantsporting events held in Londoninclude theFA Cup Final, theWimbledon Tennis Championships, and theLondon Marathon. It became the first city to host threeSummer Olympic Gamesupon hosting the2012 Summer Olympics.^[36]

Londonis an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in theLatinisedformLondinium.^[37]Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources:Latin(usuallyLondinium),Old English(usuallyLunden), andWelsh(usuallyLlundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages fromCommon Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as*Londonjonor something similar. This was then adapted into Latin asLondiniumand borrowed into Old English.^[38]

Until 1889, the name "London" applied officially only to theCity of London, but since then it has also referred to theCounty of Londonand toGreater London.^[39]

In 1993, remains of aBronze Agebridge were found on the south River Thames foreshore, upstream fromVauxhall Bridge.^[40]Two of the timbers wereradiocarbon datedto 1750–1285 BC.^[40]In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC,^[41]were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.^[42]Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-undergroundRiver Effraflows into the Thames.^[42]

Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by theRomansaround 47 AD,^[1]about four years after their invasion of 43 AD.^[43]This only lasted until about 61 AD, when theIcenitribe led byQueen Boudicastormed it and burnt it to the ground.^[44]

The next planned incarnation ofLondiniumprospered, supersedingColchesteras the principal city of theRoman provinceofBritanniain 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.^[45]

With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, althoughRoman civilisationcontinued aroundSt Martin-in-the-Fieldsuntil about 450.^[46]From about 500, anAnglo-Saxonsettlement known asLundenwicdeveloped slightly west of the old Roman city.^[47]By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeatedVikingassaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.^[48]

The Vikings appliedDanelawover much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London toChesteras an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by theDanishwarlord,Guthrumand theWest SaxonkingAlfred the Greatin 886. TheAnglo-Saxon Chroniclerecords that Alfred "refounded" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the oldRoman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950.^[49]

By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England.Westminster Abbey, rebuilt inRomanesquestyle by KingEdward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe.Winchesterhad been the capital ofAnglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view ofFrank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to anational capital."^[50]

After winning theBattle of Hastings,William, Duke of Normandywas crownedKing of Englandin newly completedWestminster Abbeyon Christmas Day 1066.^[51]William built theTower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants.^[52]In 1097,William IIbegan buildingWestminster Hall, near the abbey. It became the basis of a newPalace of Westminster.^[53]

In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes atWestminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in theTower. While theCity of Westminsterdeveloped into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, theCity of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, theCorporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.^[54]With theBlack Deathin the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population.^[55]London was the focus of thePeasants' Revoltin 1381.^[56]

London was a centre of England'sJewish populationbefore theirexpulsionbyEdward Iin 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.^[57]In 1264 during theSecond Barons' War,Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.^[58]

During theTudor period, theReformationproduced a gradual shift toProtestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.^[59]In 1475, theHanseatic Leagueset up a main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called theStalhoforSteelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities ofLübeck,BremenandHamburgsold the property toSouth Eastern Railway.^[60]Woollencloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of theLow Countries.^[61]

Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas ofnorth-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and theMediterraneanwas normally throughAntwerpand over theAlps; any ships passing through theStrait of Gibraltarto or from England were likely to be Italian orRagusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity.^[62]TheRoyal Exchangewas founded.^[63]Mercantilismgrew and monopoly traders such as theEast India Companywere founded as trade expanded to theNew World. London became the mainNorth Seaport, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.^[59]

In the 16th century,William Shakespeareand his contemporaries lived in London duringEnglish Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare'sGlobe Theatrewas constructed in 1599 inSouthwark. Stage performances came to a halt in London whenPuritanauthoritiesshut down the theatresin the 1640s.^[64]The ban on theatre was lifted duringthe Restorationin 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre,Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now theWest Endtheatre district.^[65]

By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt onJames Iin Westminster, in theGunpowder Plotof 5 November 1605.^[66]In 1637, the government ofCharles Iattempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish theLiberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's "The Great Refusal", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of theCity.^[67]

In theEnglish Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported theParliamentarycause. After an initial advance by theRoyalistsin 1642, culminating in the battles ofBrentfordandTurnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as theLines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.^[68]The fortifications failed their only test when theNew Model Armyentered London in 1647,^[69]and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.^[70]London wasplaguedby disease in the early 17th century,^[71]culminating in theGreat Plagueof 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.^[71]TheGreat Fire of Londonbroke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.^[72]Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymathRobert Hooke.^[73]

In 1710,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed, replacing its medieval predecessor that burned in the Great Fire of 1666. The dome of St Paul's dominated the London skyline for centuries, inspiring the artworks and writing ofWilliam Blake, with his 1789 poem "Holy Thursday" referring to ‘the high dome of Pauls'.^[74]During theGeorgian era, new districts such asMayfairwere formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development inSouth London. In the east, thePort of Londonexpanded downstream. London's development as an internationalfinancial centrematured for much of the 18th century.^[75]

In 1762,George IIIacquiredBuckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime,^[76]and theBow Street Runnerswere established in 1750 as a professional police force.^[77]Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.^[78]

Coffee-housesbecame a popular place to debate ideas, as growingliteracyand development of theprinting pressmade news widely available, withFleet Streetbecoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, theRoyal Navybecame the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. Following a fire in 1838, the Royal Exchange was redesigned byWilliam Titeand rebuilt in 1844. The repeal of theCorn Lawsin 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.^[79]

With the onset of theIndustrial Revolutionin Britain, an unprecedented growth inurbanisationtook place, and the number ofHigh Streets(the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew.^[80][81]London was the world'slargest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare).^[82]In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such asHarding, Howell & Co.—one of the firstdepartment stores—located onPall Mall, the streets had scores ofstreet sellers.^[80]London's overcrowded conditions led tocholeraepidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.^[83]Risingtraffic congestionled to the creation of theLondon Underground, the world's firsturban rail network.^[84]TheMetropolitan Board of Worksoversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when theLondon County Councilwas created out of county areas surrounding the capital.^[85]

From the early years of the 20th century onwards,teashopswere found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, withLyons, who opened the first of theirchainof teashops inPiccadillyin 1894, leading the way.^[86]The tearooms, such as theCriterionin Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.^[87]The city was the target of many attacks during thesuffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such asWestminster AbbeyandSt Paul's Cathedralbombed.^[88]

London wasbombed by the Germansin theFirst World War, and during theSecond World War,the Blitzand other bombings by the GermanLuftwaffekilled over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.^[89]The tomb ofthe Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920.^[90]The Cenotaph, located inWhitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for theNational Service of Remembranceheld annually onRemembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November.^[91]

The1948 Summer Olympicswere held at the originalWembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war.^[92]From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily fromCommonwealthcountries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,^[93]making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, theFestival of Britainwas held on theSouth Bank.^[94]TheGreat Smogof 1952 led to theClean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea soup fogs" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the "Big Smoke".^[95]

Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwideyouth culture, exemplified by theSwinging Londonsub-culture associated with theKing's Road,ChelseaandCarnaby Street.^[96]The role of trendsetter revived in thepunkera.^[97]In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a newGreater London Councilwas created.^[98]DuringThe Troublesin Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by theProvisional Irish Republican Army.^[99]These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with theOld Bailey bombing.^[99]Racial inequality was highlighted by the1981 Brixton riot.^[100]

Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.^[101]The principal ports for London moved downstream toFelixstoweandTilbury, with theLondon Docklandsarea becoming a focus for regeneration, including theCanary Wharfdevelopment. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.^[102]Located about 2 miles (3 km) east of central London, theThames Barrierwas completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from theNorth Sea.^[103]

The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of theGreater London Authority.^[104]To mark the 21st century, theMillennium Dome,London EyeandMillennium Bridgewere constructed.^[105]On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage theOlympic Gamesthree times.^[36]On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in aseries of terrorist attacks.^[99]

In 2008,Timenamed London alongside New York City and Hong Kong asNylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influentialglobal cities.^[106]In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.^[107]During theBrexit referendumin 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave theEuropean Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining.^[108]However, Britain'sexit from the EUin early 2020 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre.^[109]

The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by theGreater London Authority(GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.^[111]The GLA consists of two elected components: themayor of London, who hasexecutive powers, and theLondon Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional armTransport for London(TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.^[112]The headquarters of the GLA isCity Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has beenSadiq Khan, the firstMuslimmayor of a major Western capital.^[113]The mayor'sstatutory planningstrategy is published as theLondon Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.^[114]

The local authorities are the councils of the 32London boroughsand theCity of London Corporation.^[115]They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation,social services, local roads and refuse collection.^[116]Certain functions, such aswaste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).^[117]

TheLondon Fire Brigadeis thestatutoryfire and rescue servicefor Greater London, run by theLondon Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the world.^[118]National Health Serviceambulance servicesare provided by theLondon Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world.^[119]TheLondon Air Ambulancecharity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required.Her Majesty's Coastguardand theRoyal National Lifeboat Institutionoperate on theRiver Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of thePort of London AuthorityfromTeddington Lockto the sea.^[120]

London is the seat of theGovernment of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as theprime minister'sresidence at10 Downing Street, are based close to thePalace of Westminster, particularly alongWhitehall.^[121]There are 73 members ofParliament(MPs) from London; As of December 2019^[update], 49 are from theLabour Party, 21 areConservatives, and three areLiberal Democrats.^[122]The ministerial post ofminister for Londonwas created in 1994 and as of 2020 is held byPaul Scully.^[123]

Policing in Greater London, with the exception of theCity of London, is provided by theMetropolitan Police("The Met"), overseen by the mayor through theMayor's Office for Policing and Crime(MOPAC).^[124]The Met is also referred to asScotland Yardafter the location of its original headquarters in a road calledGreat Scotland Yardin Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – theCity of London Police.^[125]First worn by Met police officers in 1863, thecustodian helmethas been called a "cultural icon" and a "symbol of British law enforcement".^[126]Introduced by the Met in 1929, the bluepolice telephone box(basis for theTARDISinDoctor Who) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK.^[127]

TheBritish Transport Policeare responsible for police services onNational Rail,London Underground,Docklands Light RailwayandTramlinkservices.^[128]TheMinistry of Defence Policeis a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public.^[129]The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered inThames Houseon the north bank of the River Thames and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered in theSIS Buildingon the south bank.^[130]

Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally atLocal AuthorityandWardlevel.^[131]In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.^[132]Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved.^[133]However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the year, and the murder rate in London is much lower thanother major citiesaround the world.^[134]

London, also known asGreater London, is one of nineregions of Englandand the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. TheCity of Londonat its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, theCorporation of Londonresisted attempts to amalgamate the city with itssuburbs, causing "London" to be defined several ways.^[135]

Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by theLondon post town, in which 'London' forms part of postal addresses.^[136]The London telephonearea code(020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has beenaligned to the M25 motorwayin places.^[137]

Further urban expansion is now prevented by theMetropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately definedGreater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vastLondon commuter belt.^[138]Greater London is split for some purposes intoInner LondonandOuter London,^[139]and by the River Thames intoNorthandSouth, with an informalcentral Londonarea. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the originalEleanor CrossatCharing Crossnear the junction ofTrafalgar SquareandWhitehall, are about51°30′26″N00°07′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.12750°W /51.50722; -0.12750.^[140]

Within London, both the City of London and theCity of Westminsterhavecity status. The City of London and the remainder of Greater London are bothcounties for the purposes of lieutenancies.^[141]The area ofGreater Londonincludes areas that are part of thehistoric countiesofMiddlesex,Kent,Surrey,EssexandHertfordshire.^[142]More recently, Greater London has been defined as aregion of Englandand in this context is known asLondon.^[143]

It is the capital of the United Kingdom and of England byconventionrather than statute. The capital of England was moved to London fromWinchesteras thePalace of Westminsterdeveloped in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of theroyal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.^[144]

Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km²) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km²). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km²) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km²).^[145]

Modern London stands on theThames, its primary geographical feature, anavigableriver which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. TheThames Valleyis aflood plainsurrounded by gently rolling hills includingParliament Hill,Addington Hills, andPrimrose Hill. Historically London grew up at thelowest bridging pointon the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensivemarshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.^[146]

Since theVictorian erathe Thames has been extensivelyembanked, and many of its Londontributariesnow flowunderground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.^[147]The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise inhigh waterlevel caused byclimate changeand by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result ofpost-glacial rebound.^[148]

London has a temperateoceanic climate(Köppen:Cfb). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began atKew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893.^[149]The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm).^[150]The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall ofNew York City.^[151]Despite relatively low annual precipitation, London receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. London is vulnerable toclimate change, and there is concern amonghydrologicalexperts that households may run out of water before 2050.^[152]

Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981.^[153][154]Records foratmospheric pressurehave been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.^[155]

Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.^[156]A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths.^[157]A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.^[158]Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.^[159]However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.^[160]

Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerableurban heat islandeffect,^[161]making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts.^[162]

Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such asMayfair,Southwark,Wembley, andWhitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes orformer boroughs.^[172]

Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32London boroughsin addition to the ancient City of London.^[173]The City of London is the main financial district,^[174]andCanary Wharfhas recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in theDocklandsto the east.

TheWest Endis London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.^[175]West Londonincludes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.^[176]The average price for properties inKensington and Chelseais over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.^[177][178]

TheEast Endis the area closest to the originalPort of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.^[179]The surroundingEast Londonarea saw much of London's early industrial development; now,brownfieldsites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of theThames Gatewayincluding theLondon RiversideandLower Lea Valley, which was developed into theOlympic Parkfor the2012 Olympics and Paralympics.^[179]

London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as theNational Gallery, are constructed fromPortland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by whitestuccoor whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date theGreat Fireof 1666, these being a few traceRomanremains, theTower of Londonand a few scatteredTudorsurvivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-periodHampton Court Palace.^[180]

Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches byChristopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as theRoyal Exchangeand theBank of England, to the early 20th centuryOld Baileycourthouse and the 1960sBarbican Estate. The 1939Battersea Power Stationby the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples ofVictorian architecture, most notablySt. PancrasandPaddington.^[181]The density of London varies, with high employment density in thecentral areaandCanary Wharf, high residential densities ininner London, and lower densities inOuter London.

The Monumentin the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating theGreat Fire of London, which originated nearby.Marble ArchandWellington Arch, at the north and south ends ofPark Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do theAlbert MemorialandRoyal Albert HallinKensington.Nelson's Column(built to commemorateAdmiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument inTrafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellowLondon stock brick.^[182]

In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as30 St Mary Axe(dubbed "The Gherkin"),Tower 42, theBroadgate TowerandOne Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London andCanary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstructprotected viewsofSt Paul's Cathedraland other historic buildings.^[183]This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937.^[183]Nevertheless, there area number of tall skyscrapersin central London, including the 95-storeyShard London Bridge, thetallest building in the United Kingdomand Western Europe.^[184]

Other notable modern buildings includeThe Scalpel,20 Fenchurch Street(dubbed "The Walkie-Talkie"), the formerCity HallinSouthwark, theArt DecoBBC Broadcasting Houseplus thePostmodernistBritish LibraryinSomers Town/Kings CrossandNo 1 PoultrybyJames Stirling. TheBT Towerstands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top. What was formerly theMillennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue calledthe O₂Arena.^[185]

TheLondon Natural History Societysuggests that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that thetidal Thamessupports 120 species of fish.^[186]They state that over 60 species of bird nest incentral Londonand that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London'swetlandareas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38Sites of Special Scientific Interest(SSSIs), twonational nature reservesand 76local nature reserves.^[187]

Amphibiansare common in the capital, includingsmooth newtsliving by theTate Modern, andcommon frogs,common toads,palmate newtsandgreat crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such asslowworms,common lizards,barred grass snakesandadders, are mostly only seen inOuter London.^[188]

Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found inGreater Londonarehedgehog,brown rat, mice,rabbit,shrew,vole, andgrey squirrel.^[189]In wilder areas of Outer London, such asEpping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, includingEuropean hare,badger,field,bankandwater vole,wood mouse,yellow-necked mouse,mole, shrew, andweasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A deadotterwas found at The Highway, inWapping, about a mile from theTower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.^[190]Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest:soprano,Nathusius'andcommon pipistrelles,common noctule,serotine,barbastelle,Daubenton's,brown long-eared,Natterer'sandLeisler's.^[191]

Herds ofredandfallow deerroam freely within much ofRichmondandBushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.^[192]Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population ofmelanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary nearTheydon Bois.Muntjac deerare also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.^[193]

2021 census - population of London by country of birth ^[194]

Country of birth		Population	Percent
United Kingdom		5,223,986	59.4
Non-United Kingdom		3,575,739	40.6
	India	322,644	3.7
	Romania	175,991	2.0
	Poland	149,397	1.7
	Bangladesh	138,895	1.6
	Pakistan	129,774	1.5
	Italy	126,059	1.4
	Nigeria	117,145	1.3
	Ireland	96,566	1.1
	Sri Lanka	80,379	0.9
	France	77,715	0.9
	Others	2,161,174	24.6
Total		8,799,725	100.0

London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011,^[31]while its widermetropolitan areahad a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used.^[195]According toEurostat, London is the secondmost populousmetropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001.^[196]

The region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km²), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km²)^[145]more than ten times that of any otherBritish region.^[197]In population terms, London is the 19thlargest cityand the 18thlargest metropolitan region.^[198]

In tenure, 23.1% socially rent within London, 46.8% either own their house outright or with a mortgage or loan and 30% privately rent at the 2021 census.^[199]Many Londoner's work from home, 42.9% did so at the 2021 census while 20.6% drive a car to work. The biggest decrease in method of transportation was seen within those who take the train and underground, declining from 22.6% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2021.^[200]In qualifications, 46.7% of London had census classified Level 4 qualifications or higher, which is predominately university degrees. 16.2% had no qualifications at all.^[201]

London's median age is one of the youngest regions in the UK. It was recorded in 2018 that London's residents were 36.5 years old, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3.^[202]

Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London.^[202]

The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population wereforeign-born,^[203]making it among the cities with thelargest immigrant populationin terms of absolute numbers and a growth of roughly 3 million since 1971 when the foreign born population was 668,373.^[204]13% of the total population were Asian born (32.1% of the total foreign born population), 7.1% are African born (17.5%), 15.5% are Other European born (38.2%) and 4.2% were born in the Americas and Caribbean (10.3%).^[205]The 5 largest single countries of origin were respectively India, Romania, Poland, Bangladesh and Pakistan.^[205]

About 56.8% of children born in London in 2021 were born to a mother who was born abroad.^[206]This trend has been increasing in the past two decades when foreign born mothers made up 43.3% of births in 2001 in London, becoming the majority in the middle of the 2000s by 2006 comprising 52.5%.^[206]

A large degree of the foreign born population who were present at the 2021 census had arrived relatively recently. Of the total population, those that arrived between the years of 2011 and 2021 account for 16.6% of London.^[207]Those who arrived between 2001 and 2010 are 10.4%, between 1991 and 2001, 5.7%, and prior to 1990, 7.3%.^[207]

According to theOffice for National Statistics, based on the 2021 census, 53.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London wereWhite, with 36.8%White British, 1.8%White Irish, 0.1%Gypsy/Irish Traveller, 0.4 Roma and 14.7% classified asOther White.^[208]Meanwhile, 22.2% of Londoners were ofAsianor mixed-Asian descent, with 20.8% being of full Asian descents and 1.4% being of mixed-Asian heritage.Indiansaccounted for 7.5% of the population, followed byBangladeshisandPakistanisat 3.7% and 3.3% respectively.Chinesepeople accounted for 1.7%, andArabsfor 1.6%. A further 4.6% were classified as "Other Asian".^[208]15.9% of London's population were ofBlackor mixed-Black descent. 13.5% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.4%.Black Africansaccounted for 7.9% of London's population; 3.9% identified asBlack Caribbean, and 1.7% as "Other Black". 5.7% were ofmixed race.^[208]This ethnic structure has changed considerably since the 1960s. Estimates for 1961 put the total non-White ethnic minority population at 179,109 comprising 2.3% of the population at the time,^[209][210]having risen since then to 1,346,119 and 20.2% in 1991^[211]and 4,068,553 and 46.2% in 2021.^[212]Of those of a White British background, estimates for 1971 put the population at 6,500,000 and 87% of the total population,^[213]of since fell to 3,239,281 and 36.8% in 2021.^[212]

As of 2021, the majority of London's school pupils come from ethnic minority backgrounds. 23.9% were White British, 14% Other White, 23.2% Asian, 17.9% Black, 11.3% Mixed, 6.3% Other and 2.3% unclassified.^[214]Altogether at the 2021 census, of London's 1,695,741 population aged 0 to 15, 42% were White in total, splitting it down into 30.9% who were White British, 0.5% Irish, 10.6% Other White, 23% Asian, 16.4% Black, 12% Mixed and 6.6% another ethnic group.^[215]

In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000.^[216]At the 2021 census, 78.4% of Londoners spoke English as their first language.^[217]The 5 biggest languages outside of English were Romanian, Spanish, Polish, Bengali, and Portuguese.^[217]

According to the2021 Census, the largest religious groupings wereChristians(40.66%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%),Muslims(15%), no response (8.5%),Hindus(5.15%), Jews (1.65%),Sikhs(1.64%),Buddhists(1.0%) and other (0.8%).^[218][219]

London has traditionally beenChristian, and has alarge number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-knownSt Paul's Cathedralin the City andSouthwark Cathedralsouth of the river areAnglicanadministrative centres,^[220]while theArchbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of theChurch of Englandand worldwideAnglican Communion, has his main residence atLambeth Palacein theLondon Borough of Lambeth.^[221]

Important national and royal ceremonies are shared betweenSt Paul'sandWestminster Abbey.^[222]The Abbey is not to be confused with nearbyWestminster Cathedral, the largestRoman Catholiccathedral inEngland and Wales.^[223]Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.^[224]

Notable mosques include theEast London Mosquein Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, theLondon Central Mosqueon the edge ofRegent's Park^[225]and theBaitul Futuhof theAhmadiyya Muslim Community. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthyMiddle-EasternArab Muslims based themselves aroundMayfair, Kensington andKnightsbridgein West London.^{[226][227][228]}There are largeBengali Muslimcommunities in the eastern boroughs ofTower HamletsandNewham.^[229]

Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs ofHarrowandBrent, the latter hosting what was until 2006^[230]Europe's largestHindu temple,Neasden Temple.^[231]London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including theBAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.^[232]

The majority ofBritish Jewslive in London, with notable Jewish communities inStamford Hill,Stanmore,Golders Green,Finchley,Hampstead,Hendon, andEdgware, all inNorth London.Bevis Marks Synagoguein theCity of Londonis affiliated to London's historicSephardicJewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years.Stanmore and Canons Park Synagoguehas the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe.^[233]TheLondon Jewish Forumwas set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.^[234]

Cockneyis an accent heard across London, mainly spoken byworking-classandlower-middle classLondoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older.^[236]Some features of Cockney include,Th-fronting(pronouncing "th" as "f"), "th" inside a word is pronounced with a "v",H-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accentdrops the "r"after a vowel.^[237]John Camden Hotten, in hisSlang Dictionaryof 1859, makes reference to Cockney "use of a peculiar slang language" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing thecostermongersof the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in thehome counties.^[238]This is particularly pronounced in areas like Romford (in the London Borough of Havering) and Southend (in Essex) which have received significant inflows of older East End residents in recent decades.^[239]

Estuary Englishis an intermediate accent between Cockney andReceived Pronunciation.^[240]It is widely spoken by people of all classes.^[241]

Multicultural London English(MLE) is amultiethnolectbecoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence.^[242]

Received Pronunciation(RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard forBritish English.^[243]It has no specific geographical correlate,^[244]although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England.^[245]It is mainly spoken byupper-classandupper-middle classLondoners.^[246]

London'sgross regional productin 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter ofUK GDP.^[247]London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington, and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m²of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m²of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.^[248]

London's finance industry is based in theCity of LondonandCanary Wharf, the two majorbusiness districts. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. This caused many bankers established inAmsterdam(e.g. Hope, Baring I'm), to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century.^[75]The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.^[79]This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity.^[249][250]

By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency.^[252]As of 2023^[update], London ranks second in the world rankings on theGlobal Financial Centres Index(GFCI),^[253]and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.^[254]

London's largest industry is finance, and itsfinancial exportsmake it a large contributor to the UK'sbalance of payments. Notwithstanding a post-Brexitexodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,^[18][19]London is still one of Europe's most economically powerful cities,^[20]and it remains one of the major financial centres of the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.^[255]Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.^[256]Along withprofessional servicesheadquarters, the City of London is home to theBank of England, London Stock Exchange, andLloyd's of Londoninsurance market.^[257]Founded in 1690,Barclays, whosebranch in Enfield, north London installed the firstcash machine(ATM) in 1967, is one of theoldest banks in continuous operation.^[258]

Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (theFTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent ofFortune 500companies have offices in London.^[259]In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, SirAdrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery companyCadbury, produced theCadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform ofcorporate governancearound the world.^[260]

Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.^[261]TheBBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters, includingITV,Channel 4,Channel 5, andSky, also have headquarters around the city. Manynational newspapers, includingThe Times, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the termFleet Street(where most national newspapers operated) remains ametonymfor the British national press.^[262]The communications companyWPPis the world's largest advertising agency.^[263]

A large number of technology companies are based in London, notably inEast London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive ageoTLD.^[264]In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list byfDi Intelligence.^[265]A museum inBletchley Park, whereAlan Turingwas based during World War II, is inBletchley, 40 miles (64 km) north of central London, as isThe National Museum of Computing.^[266]

The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed byNational Grid plc,SGN^[267]andUK Power Networks.^[268]

London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.^[269]Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.^[270]The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.^[271]

In 2015, the top ten most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London (shown with visits per venue):^[272]

1. British Museum: 6,820,686
2. National Gallery: 5,908,254
3. Natural History Museum(South Kensington): 5,284,023
4. Southbank Centre: 5,102,883
5. Tate Modern: 4,712,581
6. Victoria and Albert Museum(South Kensington): 3,432,325
7. Science Museum: 3,356,212
8. Somerset House: 3,235,104
9. Tower of London: 2,785,249
10. National Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486

The number of hotel rooms in London in 2023 stood at 155,700 and is expected to grow to 183,600 rooms, the most of any city outside China.^[273]Luxury hotels in London includethe Savoy(opened in 1889),Claridge's(opened in 1812 and rebuilt in 1898),the Ritz(opened in 1906) andthe Dorchester(opened in 1931), while budget hotel chains includePremier InnandTravelodge.^[274]

Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London,^[275]but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007, the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form theLondon Overgroundnetwork, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered byTransport for London(TfL).^[112]

The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when theLondon Passenger Transport BoardorLondon Transportwas created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by theMayor of London.^[276]

London is a major international air transport hub with thebusiest city airspacein the world.^[24]Eight airports use the wordLondonin their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally,various other airportsalso serve London, catering primarily togeneral aviationflights.

• Heathrow Airport, inHillingdon, West London, was for many years thebusiest airportin the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier,British Airways.^[277]In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.^[278]
• Gatwick Airport, south of London inWest Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base ofeasyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.^[279]
• London Stansted Airport, north-east of London inEssex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base ofRyanair, the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.^[280]
• Luton Airport, to the north of London inBedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines (especially easyJet andWizz Air) for short-haul flights.^[281]
• London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, inNewham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerablebusiness jettraffic.^[282]
• London Southend Airport, east of London inEssex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines.^[283]In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.^[284]

Opened in 1863, theLondon Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longestmetrosystem in the world.^[285][286]The system serves272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, theCity and South London Railway, which opened in 1890.^[287]

Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.^[288]An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the2012 Summer Olympics.^[289]TheDocklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, morelocal metro systemusing smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve theDocklands,GreenwichandLewisham.^[290]

There are368 railway stationsin theLondon Travelcard Zoneson an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running intoeighteen terminal stations, with the exception of theThameslinktrains connectingBedfordin the north andBrightonin the south viaLutonandGatwickairports.^[291]London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includesWaterloo Eaststation) each year.^[292]Clapham Junctionis one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges.^[293]

With the need for more rail capacity, theElizabeth Line(also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022.^[294]It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into theHome Countieswith a branch toHeathrow Airport.^[295]It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.^[296]

London is the centre of theNational Railnetwork, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.^[297]King's Cross stationandEuston station, both in London, are the starting points of theEast Coast Main Lineand theWest Coast Main Line– the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns.^[298]The Flying Scotsmanis an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service,Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934.^[299]

Some international railway services toContinental Europewere operated during the 20th century asboat trains. The opening of theChannel Tunnelin 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowingEurostarservices to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains linkSt. Pancras InternationalwithLille,Calais, Paris,Disneyland Paris, Brussels,Amsterdamand other European tourist destinations via theHigh Speed 1rail link and theChannel Tunnel.^[300]The firsthigh-speed domestictrains started in June 2009, linkingKentto London.^[301]There are plans for asecond high speed linelinking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.^[302]

London'sbus networkruns 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops.^[303]In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year.^[304]Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.^[305]London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world^[306]and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.^[307]

An emblem of London, the reddouble-decker busfirst appeared in the city in 1947 with theAEC Regent III RT(predecessor to theAEC Routemaster).^[308]London's coach hub isVictoria Coach Station, opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and then purchased by London Transport (nowTransport for London), Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe.^[309]

London has a modern tram network, known asTramlink. It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.^[310]Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink.^[311]

London's first and to date only cable car is theLondon Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and linksGreenwich Peninsulawith theRoyal Docksin the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times.^[312]

In the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day,^[313]meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.^[314]Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of abicycle hire schemein July 2010 was successful and generally well received.^[315]

ThePort of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.^[316]Most of this cargo passes through thePort of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.^[316]

London has river boat services on the Thames known asThames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services.^[317]At major piers includingCanary Wharf,London Bridge City,Battersea Power StationandLondon Eye(Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times.^[318]TheWoolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking theNorthandSouth CircularRoads.^[319]

Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. Theinner ring road(around the city centre), theNorthandSouth Circularroads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (theM25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate intoinner London. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long.^[320]TheA1andM1connect London toLeeds, andNewcastleandEdinburgh.^[321]

TheAustin Motor Companybegan makinghackney carriages(London taxis) in 1929, and models includeAustin FX3from 1948,Austin FX4from 1958, with more recent modelsTXIIandTX4manufactured byLondon Taxis International. The BBC states, "ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions".^[322]Although traditionally black, some are painted in other colours or bear advertising.^[323]

London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h).^[324]In 2003, acongestion chargewas introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.^[325]Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.^[326]Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000.^[327]

Low Traffic Neighbourhoods (LTN)were widely introduced in London, but in 2023 the Department for Transport stopped funding them, even though the benefits outweighed the costs by approximately 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time.^[328]

London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.^[21]According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world^[329]and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.^[330]A 2014PricewaterhouseCoopersreport termed London the global capital of higher education.^[331]A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022QS World University Rankings,Imperial College Londonis ranked No. 6 in the world,University College London(UCL) is ranked 8th, andKing's College London(KCL) is ranked 37th.^[332]All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in theResearch Excellence Frameworkranking 2021.^[333]TheLondon School of Economics(LSE) has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.^[334]TheLondon Business Schoolis considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by theFinancial Times.^[335]The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings^[336]): theRoyal College of Music(ranking 2nd in the world), theRoyal Academy of Music(ranking 4th) and theGuildhall School of Music and Drama(ranking 6th).^[337]

With students in London and around 48,000 inUniversity of London Worldwide,^[338]the federalUniversity of Londonis the largest contact teaching university in the UK.^[339]It includes five multi-faculty universities –City, King's College London,Queen Mary,Royal Hollowayand UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions includingBirkbeck, theCourtauld Institute of Art,Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, theLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, theRoyal Academy of Music, theCentral School of Speech and Drama, theRoyal Veterinary Collegeand theSchool of Oriental and African Studies.^[340]

Universities in London outside the University of London system includeBrunel University,Imperial College London,^[g]Kingston University,London Metropolitan University,University of East London,University of West London,University of Westminster,London South Bank University,Middlesex University, andUniversity of the Arts London(the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).^[341]In addition, there are three international universities –Regent's University London,Richmond, The American International University in LondonandSchiller International University.

London is home tofive major medical schools–Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry(part ofQueen Mary),King's College London School of Medicine(the largest medical school in Europe),Imperial College School of Medicine,UCL Medical SchoolandSt George's, University of London– and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eightacademic health science centresare based in the city –Imperial College Healthcare,King's Health PartnersandUCL Partners(the largest such centre in Europe).^[342]Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently inWhite City. Founded by pioneering nurseFlorence NightingaleatSt Thomas' Hospitalin 1860, thefirst nursing schoolis now part of King's College London.^[343]It was at King's in 1952 where a team led byRosalind FranklincapturedPhoto 51, the critical evidence in identifying the structure ofDNA.^[344]There are a number of business schools in London, including theLondon School of Business and Finance,Cass Business School(part ofCity University London),Hult International Business School,ESCP Europe,European Business School London,Imperial College Business School, theLondon Business Schooland theUCL School of Management.

London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including esteemed drama schools such asRADA(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art), theLondon Academy of Music and Dramatic Art(LAMDA),Drama Studio London,Sylvia Young Theatre School, theRoyal Central School of Speech and Dramaand theGuildhall School of Music and Drama, as well as theLondon College of Contemporary Arts(LCCA),Central School of Ballet,London Contemporary Dance School,National Centre for Circus Arts,Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, theRoyal College of Art, andTrinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. TheBRIT Schoolin the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies.^[345]

The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by theLondon boroughsor otherwise state-funded; leading examples includeAshbourne College,Bethnal Green Academy,Brampton Manor Academy,City and Islington College,City of Westminster College,David Game College,Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College,Leyton Sixth Form College,London Academy of Excellence,Tower Hamlets College, andNewham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such asCity of London School,Harrow(alumni includes seven former British prime ministers),St Paul's School,Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School,University College School,The John Lyon School,Highgate SchoolandWestminster School.^[346]

Founded in 1675, theRoyal ObservatoryinGreenwichwas established to address the problem of calculatinglongitudefor navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royalNevil Maskelyne'sNautical Almanacwhich made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as theprime meridian(0° longitude) in 1884.^[347]

Important scientificlearned societiesbased in London include theRoyal Society—the UK's nationalacademy of sciencesand the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660,^[348]and theRoyal Institution, founded in 1799. Since 1825, theRoyal Institution Christmas Lectureshave presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included physicist and inventorMichael Faraday, aerospace engineerFrank Whittle, naturalistDavid Attenboroughand evolutionary biologistRichard Dawkins.^[349]

Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London^[350]at 25.6 events per 1000 people.^[351]The city is one of the fourfashion capitalsof the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,^[352]and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.^[353]

Within theCity of Westminster, the entertainment district of theWest Endhas its focus aroundLeicester Square, where London and world filmpremieresare held, andPiccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements.^[354]London'stheatre districtis here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city'sChinatowndistrict (inSoho), and just to the east isCovent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. In 1881, the West End'sSavoy Theatre, which was built to showcase the plays ofGilbert and Sullivan, was fitted with the incandescent light bulb developed by SirJoseph Swanto become the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electricity.^[355]The city is the home ofAndrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century.^[356]Agatha Christie'sThe Mousetrap, the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952.^[357]TheLaurence Olivier Awards–named afterLaurence Olivier–are given annually by theSociety of London Theatre. TheRoyal Ballet,English National Ballet,Royal Opera, andEnglish National Operaare based in London and perform at theRoyal Opera House, theLondon Coliseum,Sadler's Wells Theatre, and theRoyal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.^[358]

Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) longUpper Street, extending northwards fromAngel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK.^[359]Europe's busiest shopping area isOxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers anddepartment stores, includingSelfridgesflagship store.^[360]Knightsbridge, home to the equally renownedHarrodsdepartment store, lies to the south-west. One of the world's largest retail destinations, London frequently ranks at or near the top of retail sales of any city.^[361][362]Opened in 1760 with its flagship store onRegent Streetsince 1881,Hamleysis the oldesttoy storein the world.^[363]Madame Tussaudswax museum opened inBaker Streetin 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began.^[364]

London is home to designersJohn Galliano,Stella McCartney,Manolo Blahnik, andJimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion.Mary Quantdesigned theminiskirtin herKing's Roadboutique inSwinging Sixties London.^[365]In 2017, London was ranked the top city for luxury store openings.^[366]London Fashion Weektakes place twice a year, in February and September; Londoners on the catwalk have includedNaomi Campbell,Kate MossandCara Delevingne.^[367]

London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants ofBrick Laneand theChineserestaurants ofChinatown.^[368]There areChinese takeawaysthroughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provideIndian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.^[369]Around 1860, the firstfish and chipsshop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, inBow.^[322]Thefull English breakfastdates from the Victorian era, and manycafesin London serve a full English throughout the day.^[370]London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, includingRestaurant Gordon RamsayinChelsea.^[371]Many hotels in London provide a traditionalafternoon teaservice, such as theOscar Wilde Loungeat theHotel Café Royalin Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example anAlice in Wonderlandthemed afternoon tea served at theEgerton House Hotel, andCharlie and the Chocolate Factorythemed afternoon tea atOne Aldwychin Covent Garden.^[372][373]The nation's most popularbiscuittodunkin tea,chocolate digestiveshave been manufactured byMcVitie'sat theirHarlesdenfactory in north-west London since 1925.^[374]

There is a variety ofannual events, beginning with the relatively newNew Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at theLondon Eye; the world's second largeststreet party, theNotting Hill Carnival, is held on the lateAugust Bank Holidayeach year. Traditional parades include November'sLord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a newLord Mayor of the City of Londonwith a procession along the streets of the city, and June'sTrooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of theCommonwealthandBritisharmies to celebrate theKing's Official Birthday.^[375]TheBoishakhi Melais aBengali New Yearfestival celebrated by theBritish Bangladeshicommunity. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors.^[376]First held in 1862, theRHS Chelsea Flower Show(run by theRoyal Horticultural Society) takes place in May every year.^[377]

The firstgay barin London in the modern sense wasThe Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just offRegent Street, in 1912 and "which developed a reputation for sexual freedom and tolerance of same-sex relations."^[378]

While London has been an LGBT tourism destination, afterhomosexuality was decriminalisedin England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970sSoho(and in particularOld Compton Street) became the centre of theLondon LGBT community.^[379]G-A-Y, previously based at theAstoria, and nowHeaven, is a long-running night club.^[380]

Wider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence ofglam rockin the UK in the early 1970s, viaMarc BolanandDavid Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musicalThe Rocky Horror Show, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements.^[381]TheBlitz Kids(which includedBoy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz inCovent Garden, helping launch theNew Romanticsubcultural movement in the late 1970s.^[382]Today, the annualLondon Pride Paradeand theLondon Lesbian and Gay Film Festivalare held in the city.^[379]

London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims inGeoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-centuryCanterbury Talesset out forCanterburyfrom London.William Shakespearespent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporaryBen Jonsonwas also based there, and some of his work, most notably his playThe Alchemist, was set in the city.^[383]A Journal of the Plague Year(1722) byDaniel Defoeis a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665Great Plague.^[383]

The literary centres of London have traditionally been hillyHampsteadand (since the early 20th century)Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diaristSamuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of theGreat Fire;Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of earlyVictorianLondon; andVirginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremostmodernistliterary figures of the 20th century.^[383]Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries areArthur Conan Doyle'sSherlock Holmesstories.^[383]Robert Louis Stevensonmixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote theStrange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, agothicnovella set in Victorian London.^[384]In 1898,H. G. Wells' sci-fi novelThe War of the Worldssees London (and southern England) invaded by Martians.^[385]Letitia Elizabeth LandonwroteCalendar of the London Seasonsin 1834. Modern writers influenced by the city includePeter Ackroyd, author ofLondon: The Biography, andIain Sinclair, who writes in the genre ofpsychogeography. In the 1940s,George Orwellwrote essays in theLondon Evening Standard, including "A Nice Cup of Tea" (method for making tea) and "The Moon Under Water" (an idealpub).^[386]The WWIIevacuation of children from Londonis depicted inC. S. Lewis' first Narnia bookThe Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe(1950). On Christmas Eve 1925,Winnie-the-Poohdebuted in London'sEvening News, with the character based on a stuffed toyA. A. Milnebought for his sonChristopher Robinin Harrods.^[387]In 1958, authorMichael BondcreatedPaddington Bear, a refugee found inPaddington station. A screen adaptation,Paddington(2014), features the calypso song "London is the Place for Me".^[388]Buckingham Palace features inRoald Dahl's 1982 novelThe BFG.^[389]

London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London includePinewood,Elstree,Ealing,Shepperton,Twickenham, andLeavesden, with theJames BondandHarry Potterseries among many notable films produced here.^[390][391]Working Title Filmshas its headquarters in London. Apost-productioncommunity is centred inSoho, and London houses six of the world's largestvisual effectscompanies, such asFramestore.^[392]The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded byAndy Serkis.^[393]London has been the setting for films includingOliver Twist(1948),Scrooge(1951),Peter Pan(1953),One Hundred and One Dalmatians(1961),My Fair Lady(1964),Mary Poppins(1964),Blowup(1966),A Clockwork Orange(1971),The Long Good Friday(1980),The Great Mouse Detective(1986),Notting Hill(1999),Love Actually(2003),V for Vendetta(2005),Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street(2008) andThe King's Speech(2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London includeCharlie Chaplin,Alfred Hitchcock,Michael Caine,Julie Andrews,Peter Sellers,David Lean,Julie Christie,Gary Oldman,Emma Thompson,Guy Ritchie,Christopher Nolan,Alan Rickman,Jude Law,Helena Bonham Carter,Idris Elba,Tom Hardy,Daniel Radcliffe,Keira Knightley,Riz Ahmed,Dev Patel,Daniel Kaluuya,Tom HollandandDaniel Day-Lewis. Post-warEaling comediesfeaturedAlec Guinness, from the 1950sHammer HorrorsstarredChristopher Lee, films directed byMichael Powellincluded the London-set earlyslasherPeeping Tom(1960), the 1970s comedy troupeMonty Pythonhad film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990sRichard Curtis's rom-coms have featuredHugh Grant. The largest cinema chain in the country,Odeon Cinemaswas founded in London in 1928 byOscar Deutsch.^[394]TheBFI IMAXon theSouth Bankis the largest cinema screen in the UK.^[395]TheBritish Academy Film Awards(BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with theBAFTA Fellowshipthe Academy's highest accolade.^[396]Founded in 1957, theBFI London Film Festivaltakes place over two weeks every October.^[397]

London is a major centre for television production, with studios includingTelevision Centre,ITV Studios,Sky CampusandFountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows,Pop Idol,The X Factor, andBritain's Got Talent(the latter two created by TV personalitySimon Cowellwho starred as a judge in all three shows), before each format was exported around the world.^[398][399]Formerly a franchise of ITV,Thames Televisionfeatured comedians such asBenny HillandRowan Atkinson(Mr. Beanwas first screened by Thames), whileTalkbackproducedDa Ali G Showwhich featuredSacha Baron CohenasAli G.^[400]Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap operaEastEnders.^[401]

London ishome to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are majortourist attractionsas well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was theBritish MuseuminBloomsbury, in 1753.^[402]Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, theNational Gallerywas founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position inTrafalgar Square.^[403]

TheBritish Libraryis thesecond largest libraryin the world, and thenational libraryof the United Kingdom.^[404]There are many other research libraries, including theWellcome LibraryandDana Centre, as well asuniversity libraries, including theBritish Library of Political and Economic ScienceatLSE, theAbdus Salam LibraryatImperial, theMaughan LibraryatKing's, and theSenate House Librariesat theUniversity of London.^[405]

In the latter half of the 19th century the locale ofSouth Kensingtonwas developed as "Albertopolis", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: theVictoria and Albert Museum, theNatural History Museum, and theScience Museum. TheNational Portrait Gallerywas founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.^[406]The national gallery of British art is atTate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved toTate Modern, a new gallery housed in the formerBankside Power Stationwhich is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via theMillennium Bridge.^[407]

London is one of the major classical andpopular musiccapitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such asUniversal Music Group InternationalandWarner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as theBarbican Arts Centre(principal base of theLondon Symphony Orchestraand theLondon Symphony Chorus), theSouthbank Centre(London Philharmonic Orchestraand thePhilharmonia Orchestra),Cadogan Hall(Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and theRoyal Albert Hall(The Proms).^[358]The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with theLast Night of the Proms. London's two main opera houses are theRoyal Opera Houseand theLondon Coliseum(home to theEnglish National Opera).^[358]The UK's largestpipe organis at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells ofSt Clement Danesfeature in the 1744nursery rhyme"Oranges and Lemons".^[408]Severalconservatoiresare within the city:Royal Academy of Music,Royal College of Music,Guildhall School of Music and DramaandTrinity Laban. The record labelEMIwas formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company,Alan Blumlein, createdstereo soundthat year.^[409]Guitar amp engineerJim MarshallfoundedMarshall Amplificationin London in 1962.^[410]

London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue,the O₂Arena,^[411]andWembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such asBrixton Academy, theHammersmith Apolloand theShepherd's Bush Empire.^[358]Severalmusic festivals, including theWireless Festival,LoveboxandHyde Park'sBritish Summer Time, are held in London.^[412]

The city is home to the originalHard Rock Cafeand theAbbey Road Studios, wherethe Beatlesrecorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups likeElton John,Pink Floyd,David Bowie,the Rolling Stones,Queen,Eric Clapton,the Who,the Kinks,Cliff Richard,Led Zeppelin,Iron Maiden,Deep Purple,T. Rex,the Police,Elvis Costello,Dire Straits,Cat Stevens,Fleetwood Mac,the Cure,Madness,Culture Club,Dusty Springfield,Phil Collins,Rod Stewart,Status QuoandSade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.^[413][414]

London was instrumental in the development ofpunk music, with figures such as theSex Pistols,the Clashand fashion designerVivienne Westwoodall based in the city.^[415]Other artists to emerge from the London music scene includeGeorge Michael,Kate Bush,Seal,Siouxsie and the Banshees,Bush, theSpice Girls,Jamiroquai,Blur,the Prodigy,Gorillaz,Mumford & Sons,Coldplay,Dido,Amy Winehouse,Adele,Sam Smith,Ed Sheeran,Leona Lewis,Ellie Goulding,Dua LipaandFlorence and the Machine.^[416]Artists from London played a prominent role in the development ofsynth-pop, includingGary Numan,Depeche Mode, thePet Shop BoysandEurythmics; the latter's "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods.^[417]Artists from London with a Caribbean influence includeHot Chocolate,Billy Ocean,Soul II SoulandEddy Grant, with the latter fusingreggae, soul and samba with rock and pop.^[418]London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genresUK garage,drum and bass,dubstepandgrimeevolved in the city from the foreign genres ofhouse,hip hop, and reggae, alongside localdrum and bass. Urban acts from London includeStormzy,M.I.A.,Jay SeanandRita Ora. Music stationBBC Radio 1Xtrawas set up to support the rise of localurban contemporarymusic both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. TheBritish Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, theBrit Awards, are held in London.^[419]

A 2013 report by theCity of London Corporationsaid that London is the "greenest city" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens.^[420]The largest parks in thecentral area of Londonare three of the eightRoyal Parks, namelyHyde Parkand its neighbourKensington Gardensin the west, andRegent's Parkto the north.^[421]Hyde Park in particular is popular forsportsand sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park containsLondon Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is nearMadame Tussaudswax museum.^[422]Primrose Hillis a popular spot from which to view the city skyline.^[423]

Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks,Green ParkandSt. James's Park.^[424]A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, includingHampstead Heathand the remaining Royal Parks ofGreenwich Parkto the southeast, andBushy ParkandRichmond Park(the largest) to the southwest.Hampton Court Parkis also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by theHistoric Royal Palaces, unlike the eightRoyal Parks.^[425]

Close to Richmond Park isKew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on theUNESCOlist ofWorld Heritage Sites.^[426]There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, includingVictoria Parkin theEast EndandBattersea Parkin the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, includingHampstead HeathandEpping Forest,^[427]both controlled by theCity of London Corporation.^[428]Hampstead Heath incorporatesKenwood House, a formerstately homeand a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake.^[429]Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.^[427]Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks,Thorpe Parknear Staines-upon-Thames,Chessington World of Adventuresin Chessington andLegoland Windsor, are located within 20 miles (32 km) of London.^[430]

Walking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks includeWimbledon Common,Epping Forest,Hampton Court Park,Hampstead Heath, the eightRoyal Parks,Regents CanalWalk, canals and disused railway tracks.^[431]Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of theThames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is withinGreater London, and TheWandle Trailalong theRiver Wandle.^[432]

Otherlong-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including theCapital Ring, theGreen Chain Walk,London Outer Orbital Path("Loop"),Jubilee Walkway,Lea Valley Walk, and theDiana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk.^[431]

London has hosted theSummer Olympicsthree times: in1908,1948, and2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.^[36]The city was also the host of theBritish Empire Gamesin1934.^[434]In 2017, London hosted theWorld Championships in Athleticsfor the first time.^[435]

London'smost popular sportisfootball, and it has seven clubs in thePremier Leaguein the2023–24 season:Arsenal,Brentford,Chelsea,Crystal Palace,Fulham,Tottenham Hotspur, andWest Ham United.^[436]Other professional men's teams in London areAFC Wimbledon,Barnet,Bromley,Charlton Athletic,Dagenham & Redbridge,Leyton Orient,Millwall,Queens Park RangersandSutton United. Four London-based teams are in theWomen's Super League:Arsenal,Chelsea,TottenhamandWest Ham United.

TwoPremiership Rugbyunion teams are based in Greater London:HarlequinsandSaracens.^[437]Ealing TrailfindersandLondon Scottishplay in theRFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city includeRichmond,Rosslyn Park,Westcombe ParkandBlackheath.Twickenham Stadiumin south-west London hosts home matches for theEngland national rugby union team.^[438]Whilerugby leagueis more popular in the north of England, the sport has one professional club in London – theLondon Broncoswho play in theSuper League.

One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is theWimbledon Tennis Championships, held at theAll England Clubin the south-western suburb ofWimbledonsince 1877.^[439]Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.^[440][441]

London has twoTest cricketgrounds which host theEngland cricket team,Lord's(home ofMiddlesex C.C.C.) andthe Oval(home ofSurrey C.C.C.). Lord's has hosted four finals of theCricket World Cupand is known as theHome of Cricket.^[442]In golf, theWentworth Clubis located inVirginia Water, Surrey on the south-west fringes of London, while the closest venue to London that is used as one of the courses forthe Open Championship, the oldest major and tournament in golf, isRoyal St George'sin Sandwich, Kent.^[443]Alexandra Palacein north London hosts thePDC World Darts Championshipand theMasterssnookertournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participationLondon Marathon^[444]and theUniversity Boat Raceon the Thames contested betweenOxfordandCambridge.^[445]

• Outline of England
• Outline of London

• Ackroyd, Peter (2001).London: The Biography. London: Vintage.ISBN978-0-09-942258-7.
• Mills, David (2001).Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford Paperbacks.ISBN978-0-19-280106-7.OCLC45406491.

• VisitLondon.com– official tourism site
• Museum of London
• LondoninBritish History Online, with links to numerous authoritative online sources
• "London",In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Peter Ackroyd, Claire Tomalin and Iain Sinclair (28 September 2000)
• Geographic data related toLondonatOpenStreetMap